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Sexual signals can be evolutionarily stable if they are condition dependent or costly to the signaler. One of these costs may be the trade-off between maintaining the immune system and the elaboration of ornaments. Experimental immune challenges in captivity show a reduction in the expression of sexual signals, but it is not clear whether these detrimental effects are important in nature and, more importantly, whether they have reproductive consequences. We designed a field experiment to challenge the immune system of wild male Carpetan rock lizards, Iberolacerta cyreni, with a bacterial antigen (lipopolysaccharide). The immune challenge decreased relative reflectance of ultraviolet structural and melanin-dependent sexual coloration in the throat and the lateral ocelli, whereas the carotenoid-dependent dorsal green coloration was not affected. Immune activation also decreased proportions of ergosterol and cholesta-5,7-dien-3-ol in femoral secretions. These results support a trade-off between the immune system and both visual and chemical sexual ornaments. Moreover, the reproductive success of males, estimated with DNA microsatellites, depended on the expression of some color and chemical traits. However, the immune challenge did not cause overall differences in reproductive success, although it increased with body size/age in control but not in challenged males. This suggests the use of alternative reproductive strategies (e.g., forced matings) in challenged males, particularly in smaller ones. These males might consider that their survival probabilities are low and increase reproductive effort as a form of terminal investment in spite of their “low-quality” sexual signals and potential survival costs.

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My PhD research activity focused on the investigation of the role of polarized light in the directional orientation of the lacertid lizard Podarcis sicula. In particular, the aim of this work was to systematically analyze P. sicula orientation behaviour and to lay the foundation for future electrophysiological and molecular investigations of anatomical structures assigned to sky polarization perception. Another goal was to understand the evolutionary meaning of these structures and the mechanisms of polarization perception. For this purpose, the first experimental section (EXPERIMENT 1: Beltrami et al., 2010) examined whether ruin lizards P. sicula are able to orientate using the E-vector direction of polarized light. Lizard orientation was tested indoors, under an artificial light source: this device produced plane polarized light with a single E-vector, that provided an axial cue. These results showed that lizards can learn a training axis and that after 90° rotation of the E-vector direction of polarized light the lizards’ directional choices rotated correspondingly. The following step of the study aimed at elucidating whether the functioning of a sky polarization compass would be mediated by the lizard parietal eye. To test this, ruin lizards that met learning criteria were tested under polarized light after their parietal eyes were painted black. Lizards with black-painted parietal eyes were completely disoriented. These data showed for the first time that the parietal eye plays a central role in mediating the functioning of a putative sky polarization compass of lizards. Furthermore, the experimental apparatus used in this experiment emitted light that did not include wavelengths in the UV range. Thus, the UV range is not necessary for perceiving polarized light in ruin lizards, unlike other species as, for example, honey bees and desert ants that in the absence of UV are unable to use a sky polarization compass. That being so, the second experimental part (EXPERIMENT 2) was aimed at testing whether there is a preferential region of the light spectrum to perceive the E-vector direction of polarized light. The results showed that lizards can learn a training direction when trained under white light produced by an LCD and E-vector parallel to the training axis. Lizards that met the learning criteria were then tested under white light and E-vector perpendicular to the training axis, just to validate the new LCD equipment: as expected, lizards followed a 90° rotation of the Evector direction, confirming once again that they can use the polarized light for orientation. Thereafter, lizards were tested under coloured polarized light (blue, green, red and turquoise), initially with E-vector parallel to the training axis and then with E-vector perpendicular to the training axis, to examine whether P. sicula can perceive polarized light of a particular wavelength range and use it in orientation. Under both blue light and turquoise light lizards were able to orient in both E-vector’s conditions, otherwise under red light lizards were completely disoriented; under green light lizards were able to orient themselves only when the direction of the E-vector was the same as in training, whereas after a 90° rotation of the E-vector lizards were disoriented, in both spectral radiance level (high and low). Incorrect orientation after E-vector rotation under Green light was independent of (high or low) spectral radiance and one hypothesis to interpret these data is that the green stimuli could be barely discernible. These results, combined with the data under Green light previously discussed, demonstrate that the blue-turquoise part of the light spectrum is crucial for a correct functioning of sky polarization compass, whereas red wavelengths do not mediate perception of the E-vector. The third experimental section (EXPERIMENT 3) was performed outdoors. The first part of this experiment was aimed to validate the new set-up outdoors. Inside the experimental apparatus lizards had only the sky polarization pattern available for orientation. As expected, the results demonstrated that lizards can learn a training direction and the new set-up is well suited to investigate orientation mechanisms in lizards. The second part of this experiment was aimed at testing the time-compensated nature of the sky polarization compass. The results demonstrated that lizards can learn a training direction under blue sky with no sun’s disc, but surprisingly, they cannot retain the spatial information. Indeed, after 6 days without training, both control group and fast-shifted group, were disorientated. A possibility is that some aspects of the information necessary for the normal functioning of the sky polarization compass is not retained for a week with no training. Alternatively, it is possible that the sky polarization compass needs to be recalibrated almost daily by external cues, such as exposure of the lizards to the sun’s disc. Clearly, other explanations are possible, and further experiments outdoors are necessary to answer this important question. Results relating to my three year of PhD course show the way forward to new interesting questions and so to new possible experimental applications to finally clarify the evolutionary role of the sky polarization compass and its interactions with other orientation mechanisms (for example the sun compass or the magnetic compass). It should be very interesting to deepen the knowledge of the nature of the sky polarization pattern’s information, to elucidate the time-compensated mechanisms that set the information retention.

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The gonads are specific organs since the testes and ovaries, as organs with totally different structure, develop from common, undifferentiated anlages termed genital ridges. Cells sharing the same origin commit various fate, and form different structures, depending on sex determination. The testes and ovaries are therefore a valuable object of research on cell differentiation and mechanisms of organ structure patterning. The development of gonads in reptiles has been studied in few species and many aspects of gonadogenesis in this group of vertebrates have remained unclear. Comparative descriptions showing similarities and differences in gonad development between lizard species have been scarce. The aim of the study was to investigate changes in the structure of developing gonads occurring at the early stages of development in selected species of lizards. The study was carried out on six species of lizards: Correlophus ciliatus, Lepidodactylus lugubris, Eublepharis macularius, Takydromus sexlineatus, Anolis carolinensis and Chamaeleo calyptratus. Gonads were subjected to trichromatic staining specifically revealing connective tissue and basement membranes, which enabled to image the internal structure of the organ. In differentiating testes, the cortex reduces to a thin epithelium, and the germ cells disappear in the reducing cortex, while in the medulla the epithalial cells differentiate and testis cords, containing the germ cells, form. In differentiating ovaries, the cortex grows, which is accompanied by an increase in the number of germ cells in this part of the gonad; the ovarian cortex surrounds the entire medulla or forms only a cluster of cells at the distal gonad pole as in geckos; in the ovarian medulla, cells can eventually differentiate in epithelial structures, and in the leopard gecko even form well-organized cords. The main interspecific differences in the structure of developing gonads concerned a shape of the gonads, their cortex and medulla, and the tendency of ovarian medulla cells to form epithelial structures and cords. The veiled chameleon turned out to be a unique species, in which gonadal development rate is accelerated in relation to soma development. Despite describing significant diversity in the structure of developing lizard gonads, this study reveals the existence of a common model of sexual differentiation of gonads independent of the genetic or temperature sex determination.

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Auf 8 Reisen (1999 - 2006) in 5 alpinen Gebirgsstöcken (Lechtaler Alpen, Karwendel, Rofan, Dachstein, Schladminger Tauern) wurden Daten zur Verbreitung und Biologie von Amphibien, Reptilien und Libellen gesammelt.

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Biological invasions are a contemporary global threat because invasive species can have substantial negative economic and ecological impacts. Invasive species can outcompete native species through two main mechanisms: interference competition (direct, negative interactions like aggression) and/or exploitative competition (indirect, negative interactions resulting from species using the same, limited resources like food). The invasive Italian wall lizard (Podarcis siculus) was introduced into Lisbon, Portugal, 20 years ago, and is believed to be locally displacing the native green Iberian wall lizard (Podarcis virescens). We experimentally tested for competition between these two lizard species by establishing heterospecific (one pair of each species) and conspecific (two pairs of the same species; control) treatments in enclosures containing a high- and a low-quality refuge. Lizards were fed from food dishes every other day. We tested if species showed interference (aggressive behaviour, stealing food and shelter exclusion) or exploitative competition (tolerance between species but differences in food consumption efficiency). We found evidence for exploitative competition: the invasive species arrived first at food stations, consumed more food and gained more weight than the native species. We suggest that exploitative competition may, in part, explain the observed displacement of P. virescens from contact areas with the invasive P. siculus. Deciphering the competitive mechanisms between invasive and native species is vital for understanding the invasion process.

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While the common wall lizard (Podarcis muralis) is not native to the Austrian province of Salzburg, an allochthonous population became known in 2008 at a railway station in the northern lowlands of the province. Two further populations were discovered in 2014 and 2015 along the railway network in the city of Salzburg as well as at a railway station in the alpine valley area near Schwarzach. This study addresses questions on the overall distribution of the species in the province of Salzburg, the origin of intro-duced populations, habitat suitability and potential future dispersal of the species. Since all hitherto known populations of the common wall lizard have been located along the railroad network and transportation of cargo is one of the main dispersal vec-tors of this species, 38 locations along the railroad network of Salzburg have been sur-veyed. Seven of those 38 locations were occupied by wall lizards. In addition, buccal swabs were taken and sequenced from 48 individuals at seven sites. DNA-Barcoding using mitochondrial DNA was used to determine the genetic clades. With regards to potentially suitable habitat structures for wall lizards, all locations were examined in detail, while those currently unoccupied were also classified in potentially favourable and unfavourable habitats with the help of a habitat suitability scheme to predict future potential dispersal of the species. Individuals originating from four different genetic clades could be identified, suggesting introduction from several European locations. The sampled wall lizards from Schwöll, Steindorf, Elsbethen and Schwarzach refer to the Southern Alps clade (Podarcis m. maculiventris-West), while populations in the city of Salzburg additionally comprise individuals with haplotypes from the western and eastern France clades (both Podarcis m. brogniardii), as well as the central Balkans clade (Podarcis m. muralis). While some introduction pathways seem clear because of trans-portation of cargo from the geographical source regions, for the city of Salzburg the idea of a singular, secondary introduction of individuals of all four genetic clades ap-pears more likely, because this area was populated only recently. Therefore, the wall lizards, which were introduced to the province of Salzburg, might be hybrids of differ-ent genetic lineages from all over Europe. The fact that since the end of the study three further areas in the province of Salzburg have been populated by Podarcis muralis, shows how dynamic the system is at the moment.

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Die auf vier Reisen zwischen 1996 und 2000 in vier alpinen Gebirgsstöcken (Totes Gebirge, Rottenmaner Taueren, Kreuzeckgruppe, Rätikon) gesammelten Daten zur Verbreitung der Amphibien, Reptilien und Libellen werden zusammengestellt.

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Background: Identifying the factors that contribute to divergence among populations in mate preferencesis important for understanding of the manner in which premating reproductive isolation might arise andhow this isolation may in turn contribute to the evolutionary process of population divergence. Here, weoffered female northern grass lizards (Takydromus septentrionalis) a choice of males between their ownpopulation and another four populations to test whether the preferences that females display in themating trials correlate with phenotypic adaptation to local environments, or to the neutral geneticdistance measured by divergence of mitochondrial DNA sequence loci. Results: Females showed a strong preference for native over foreign males. Females that mated withnative versus foreign males did not differ from each other in mating latency, or copulation duration. Fromresults of the structural equation modelling we knew that: 1) geographical distance directly contributed togenetic differentiation and environmental dissimilarity; 2) genetic differentiation and environmentaldissimilarity indirectly contributed to female mate preference, largely through their effects onmorphological divergence; and 3) females judged mates by body shape (appearance) and discriminatedmore strongly against morphologically less familiar allopatric males. Conclusions: Local adaptation rather than neutral genetic distance influences female mate preference in T. septentrionalis. The tendency to avoid mating with foreign males may indicate that, in T.septentrionalis, local adaptations are more valuable than genetic novelties. Our results highlight theimportance of comprehensive studies integrating ecological, molecular and behavioral approaches tounderstand population divergence in female mate preferences as the consequence of local adaptations.

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Apart from analyses for elemental contaminants in field collected specimens, very little is known about the assimilation, accumulation and toxic effects of inorganic contaminants in reptiles. This study examined the chronic accumulation of Cd in a European lacertid lizard (Podarcis carbonelli) following dietary provision of an environmentally realistic concentration of Cd for 21 weeks. Lizards were provided with Cd that had either been biologically incorporated into crickets, or as Cd(NO3)2 added superficially to crickets just prior to feeding. Among both treatment groups Cd accumulated in tissues in the following order of concentration: gut > liver > kidney > carcass. The majority of the Cd was retained within the gut, and transfer to internal organs was low. Morphological indices, brain and plasma cholinesterase activities, gut and liver metallothionein content, and standard metabolic rate were measured as biomarkers of exposure and effect; however, no differences between control lizards and Cd-treated lizards were observed.

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Data on the reproduction of the rock lizard (Darevskia saxicola (Eversmann 1834)) in the gorges of Bolshaya Laba (Karachay-Cherkessia) and Malaya Laba (Krasnodar Territory) rivers are presented. Gravid females of this species were captured in nature and transported to the laboratory. The animals were kept in captivity until oviposition. All eggs were obtained between July 20th and August 20th. Breeding females had a body length of 42.5–60.1 mm. Hatches comprised 1–4 eggs sized 11.2–18.0 × 5.8–8.5 mm and weighting 0.185–0.535 g. Incubation in the laboratory lasted 38–47 days. Young lizards after hatching had a body length of 21.6– 30.8 mm, tail 39.9–60.4 mm long, and weight 0.375–0.635 g. A comparison of the reproductive characteris- tics of D. saxicola and the syntopic species (D. derjugini (Nikolsky 1898) and D. pontica (Lantz et Cyren 1919)) was carried out. The late oviposition and relatively low fertility in the rock lizards are compensated for by the large size of eggs and newborn lizards.

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Lacertid lizards use chemical cues emitted by saurophagous snakes to evade predation. Whether these lizards can detect and respond to the chemical cues of predatory mammals has not been studied. As many mammals carry distinct body odours and/or use chemical cues for intraspecific communication, lizards can be expected to use these chemicals as early warning cues. To test this idea, we observed the behaviour of Asian grass lizards (Takydromus sexlineatus) that had been transferred to an unfamiliar test arena containing one of four scent treatments. No particular scent was applied to the arena in the control situation. Diluted aftershave served as a pungency control. In the snake treatment, scent of the Oriental whip snake (Ahaetulla prasina) was applied. We included this treatment to learn how Asian grass lizards react to predator chemical cues. Finally, in the mongoose treatment, the lizards were confronted with scent cues of several small Indian mongooses (Herpestes auropunctatus). Snake scent elicited foot shakes, startles and tail vibrations. These are behaviours that in lacertid lizards are associated with stressful situations such as predatory encounters. Surprisingly, lizards confronted with mongoose scent exhibited none of these stress‐indicating behaviours. In fact, their behaviour did not differ from that of lizards subjected to an odourless control treatment. These results raise concern. Mongooses are rapidly invading ecosystems worldwide. If lizards that have co‐evolved with mongooses are unable to detect these predators’ presence through chemical cues, it seems highly unlikely that evolutionary naïve lizards will develop this ability rapidly.

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Bite force is a key performance trait in lizards because biting is involved in many ecologically relevant tasks, including foraging, fighting and mating. Several factors have been suggested to impact bite force in lizards, such as head morphology (proximate factors), or diet, intraspecific competition and habitat characteristics (ultimate factors). However, these have been generally investigated separately and mostly at the interspecific level. Here we tested which factors drive variation in bite force at the population level and to what extent. Our study includes 20 populations of two closely related lacertid species, Podarcis melisellensis and Podarcis sicula, which inhabit islands in the Adriatic. We found that lizards with more forceful bites have relatively wider and taller heads, and consume more hard prey and plant material. Island isolation correlates with bite force, probably by driving resource availability. Bite force is only poorly explained by proxies of intraspecific competition. The linear distance from a large island and the proportion of difficult-to-reduce food items consumed are the ultimate factors that explain most of the variation in bite force. Our findings suggest that the way in which morphological variation affects bite force is species-specific, probably reflecting the different selective pressures operating on the two species.

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Based on 20,000 records representing c. 11,000 individuals from an 8-year capture-mark-recapture (CMR) study, we tested and confirmed a new case of invariant clutch size (ICS) in a sexually dichromatic lacertid lizard, Takydromus viridipunctatus. In the grassland habitat of the early succession stage, females showed strictly low and invariant clutch size, multiple clutches in a breeding season, high reproductive potential, and annual breeding cycles that correspond to the emergence of male courtship coloration. The hatchlings mature quickly, and join the adult cohort for breeding within a few months, whereas adults show low survival rates and a short lifespan, such that most die within one year. Mortality increased in both sexes during the breeding season, especially in females, indicating an unequal cost of reproduction in survival. These life history characters may be explained by two nonexclusive hypotheses of ICS—arboreal hypothesis and predation hypothesis—within the ecological context of their habitat. Our study highlights a confirmed case of ICS, which adapts well to this r-selected grassland habitat that experiences seasonal fluctuation and frequent disturbance.

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Anthropization of insular ecosystems may have negative impacts on native populations of lizards, which provide core ecosystem services on islands. We aimed to identify environmental factors to explain the interlocal variation in faecal glucocorticoids, parasite intensity, and body condition in populations of insular lizards. A cross-sectional design during the summer of 2017 and 2018 was used to sample 611 adult lizards, Gallotia galloti. Interlocal variation of three stress indicators was analysed in response to environmental variables across a wide environmental gradient in Tenerife (Canary Islands): (i) concentration of faecal glucocorticoids, (ii) intensities of infection by hematic parasites, and (iii) body condition. The data, with low spatial autocorrelation, were analysed using multimodel inference and model cross-validation. Bioclimatic variables associated with the extreme hot and dry climate of summer were the most informative predictors. Interlocal variation in faecal corticosterone in males was best fitted to a model that included the maximum temperature of the warmest month, although the best predictor was habitat anthropization. The thermal annual range, associated with extreme thermal events, was positively related to faecal corticosterone in females. Extreme hot temperatures were positively related to the median parasite intensities in both sexes, while the highest mean intensities of infection were found in females from the most xeric coastal localities. None of the predictors tested, including faecal glucocorticoids, explained individual or interlocal variation in body condition. Effects of human pressure and climate change on insular populations of lizards can be additive. However, the uncoupled relationship found between body condition and the faecal glucocorticoid content suggests that current negative effects may be aggravated during drought periods in summer. Given the impact of climate change on islands, our results may be of application to other archipelagos, where lizards also play key ecological roles.

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Trace elements can be toxic when they cannot be easily removed after entering an ecosystem, so a long-term assessment is fundamental to guide ecosystem restoration after catastrophic pollution. In 1998, a pyrite mining accident in Aznalcóllar (south-western Spain) spilled toxic waste over a large area of the Guadiamar river basin, where, after restoration tasks, the Guadiamar Green Corridor was established. Eight years after the mine accident (2005–2006), the ground-dwelling insectivorous lizard Psammodromus algirus registered high trace-element levels within the study area compared to specimens from a nearby unpolluted control site. In 2017, 20 years after the accident, we repeated the sampling for this lizard species and also quantified trace elements in vegetation as well as in arthropod samples in order to identify remnant trace-element accumulation with the aim of assessing the transfer of these elements through the trophic web. We found remnant trace-element contamination in organisms of the polluted site compared to those from the unpolluted site. All trace-element concentrations were higher in arthropods than in plants, suggesting these compounds bioaccumulate through the trophic web. Lizards from the polluted areas had higher As, Cd, and Hg concentrations than did individuals from the unpolluted area. Lizard abundance between sampling periods (2005–06 and 2017) did not vary in unpolluted transects but strongly declined at polluted ones. By contrast, the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index indicated that in the study period, the vegetation was similar at the two sampling sites. These results suggest that, 20 years after the accident, the trace-element pollution could be the cause of a severe demographic decline of the lizard in the polluted area.

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Cadmium teratogenic effects and metallothionein expression were studied in tissues of lizard embryos at different stages of development. Incubation of eggs in cadmium contaminated soil had no effect on embryo survival, but strongly affected cranial morphogenesis. Cytological analyses demonstrated abnormalities in the development of proencephalic vesicles, mesencephalon and eyes. No defects were observed in somite or limb development. Northern blot analysis demonstrated that MT expression was much stronger in embryos developed in cadmium contaminated soil. In situ hybridization showed an early induction of MT gene expression in developing liver and gut, whereas in brain and eyes the spatial and temporal localization of MT transcripts did not change. A possible correlation between inability to induce MT expression and abnormalities observed in the head region of lizard developing embryos is suggested.

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Bahnstadt: 1.500 Zaun- und Mauereidechsen vor Beginn der Bauarbeiten umgesiedelt.

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Individual recognition (IR) plays an important role in modulating social interactions of several animal species. IR may work at two fundamental levels: at class-level (CIR), if it allows group membership identification (e.g. familiar/unfamiliar), or at individual-level (true IR; TIR), if it allows uniquely recognizing conspecifics. Direct and indirect evidences suggest that many lizards are able to recognize conspecifics, notably using the secretions from femoral glands, specialized epidermal structures located in the cloacal region. Such secretions are made of a mix of lipids and proteins, the latter having been poorly studied but hypothesised to convey identity-related information. Using male Iberian Rock lizards, we set up bioassays to test the role of the protein fraction in IR, and specifically whether lizards: (1) can detect proteins from femoral glands, (2) can recognize their own proteins from those of an unfamiliar male (CIR) and (3) can distinguish between two unfamiliar protein signals (TIR). We found that femoral proteins can be actually detected, and the protein signal was enough to allow self-recognition, but not to distinguish between two unfamiliar males. These outcomes support the hypothesis that proteins from lizard femoral glands are used in intraspecific communication, at least at CIR level. The lack of TIR detection has three possible explanations: (1) finer IR abilities are actually absent in this species; (2) TIR requires a more complex and complete chemical signal or (3) a more prolonged and complete set of previous interactions among individuals is needed to lead to familiarity and TIR.

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The taxonomic status, distribution and ecology of the herpetofauna of the Orange Free State are discussed, based on the examination of 10 096 specimens housed in various southern African museums. The majority of specimens were collected during the years 1972 - 1978 and 1983 - 1992, and are housed at the National Museum, Bloemfontein. A total of 25 amphibian and 95 reptilian (one translocated species) forms have been determined as occurring in the Orange Free State, 12 (three amphibians, nine reptiles) of which are new (or recently published) records for the province. An additional 10 amphibian and 28 reptilian forms have been determined as occurring nearby but extralimitally to the O.F.S., and several of these forms are expected to occur in the province. New distributional records have resulted in the amendment of the ranges of several species. Detailed taxonomic data on new material, including rare species, have been given. Some problem areas in the taxonomy of O.F.S. taxa have been higlighted. An analysis of habit utilization indicated that 84,0% of amphibians and 61,1% of reptiles are terricolous, whereas up to 21,5% of reptiles are rupicolous. The majority of snakes (72,2%) are terrestrial in habits, but 13,9% are fossorial. More than half of all lizards (52,8%) are terrestrial, although 34,6% are rupicolous. A total of six amphibian and 27 reptile forms utilize inactive termitaria as a microhabitat, including several basically terrestrial forms. Snake forms were particularly well represented in termitaria, 60,6% of all forms known from the O.F.S. having been recorded from inactive termitaria. General features of the ecology of O.F.S. amphibians and reptiles have also been discussed. The biogeographical analysis indicated that O.F.S. amphibian forms can be classified into one of nine range clusters (common patterns of distribution), and reptiles into 13 such cluster groups. By testing these classifications by means of a transect through the northern O.F.S. (from eastern to western borders), it was determined that a fairly distinct east-west subtraction of amphibian and reptilian species and subspecies occurs in the O.F.S. Clustering of range boundaries and high species and subspecies diversity at the western and eastern ends of the transect zone suggest dynamic biogeographical situations occurring in those areas - the western group being associated with the transition from grassland to bushveld, and the eastern group associated with the transition from Highveld Grassland to Drakensberg Mountains. The general eastern and western groupings of taxa appear to be associated with the cooler, wetter and mountainous east vs the warmer, drier and lowerlying west, respectively. Despite a great deal of collecting having been conducted in the O.F.S. from 1972 to 1992, an analysis of the number of taxa collected in each quarter-degree unit in `the O.F.S. indicated that additional collecting would be required in order to conduct effectively a mathematically-based biogeographical analysis.

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Cadmium is a persistent contaminant accumulated in the environment from both anthropogenic and natural sources. Every year, large quantities of this metal are released in the different environmental compartments and may pose a significant threat to the biota exposed. Intracellular damage caused by cadmium exposure includes protein denaturation, lipid peroxidation, generation of reactive oxygen species and DNA strand breaks. Many studies have also demonstrated that this ion has a teratogenic or lethal effect on embryos, related to the dose and exposure time. In spite of the wide number of studies carried out in laboratory mammals, data on cadmium effects on fertility, reproduction and embryonic development of wild terrestrial vertebrates are still limited. In particular, information on the consequences of environmental cadmium exposure on reptiles survival and biodiversity are particularly scanty. Reptiles are presently considered highly susceptible to a number of environmental pollutants and this has contributed to the global decline of several wild populations of turtles, crocodilians and lizards. As regarding cadmium effects on offspring survival, reptiles eggs for a long time have been considered well protect from the external environment and the presence of environmental contaminants in eggs or developing embryos has been attributed to a maternal transference during vitellogenesis and oviductal egg retention. More recently, it has been demonstrate that metal ions and organic contaminants present in soil may cross the flexible parchment-like shell of reptilian eggs. In consideration of the few data currently available we decided to investigate cadmium effects on biological processes such as reproduction and development in the reptile Podarcis sicula, a lizard species inhabiting both pristine and urbanized areas. The results summarized in this chapter clearly demonstrate that cadmium can interfere with the welfare and the reproductive fitness of adults, and with the development and survival of embryos. In turn, these detrimental effects on offspring production may dramatically modify the survival of wild populations inhabiting contaminated areas significantly endangering the local biodiversity and the ecological equilibrium.

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Parasitic helminths are an almost universal feature of vertebrate animals, but reptiles are among the hosts with the mostdepauperate parasite communities. Biological traits of reptiles are considered to be among the key reasons that explain low helminthdiversity; therefore, insights from a wide range of reptile hosts are helpful to understanding the ecology of parasitic helminths. Weanalyzed helminth fauna in two lacertids,Psammodromus algirusandPsammodromus edwarsianus(Squamata: Lacertidae), and oneskink,Chalcides bedriagai(Squamata: Scincidae), three common species of Mediterranean woodlands that differ in their ecologicalconditions and in lifestyles that are linked to habitat use. We examined a total of 102P. algirus,27P. edwarsianus, and 23C. bedriagaifrom mountain landscapes in eastern Iberia. We found three helminth species, the nematodesParapharyngodon echinatusandSpauligodonsp., and the cestodeMesocestoidessp. We report new reptile hosts for two helminth species: the skinkC. bedriagaifor thenematodeP. echinatusand the lizardPsammodromus algirusfor the nematodeSpauligodonsp. We also provide the second record of thelarval forms of the cestodeMesocestoidessp. in the lizardP. edwarsianusfrom the Iberian Peninsula. Interestingly, prevalence ofinfection was much higher in the skink than it was in the two lacertid lizards. Therefore, a subterranean skink lifestyle may determinethe incidence of helminth parasites when compared to the ground-dwelling lizard species. Similar to other reptile hosts, the helminthfauna of our focal lizard species was poor and mainly composed by Pharyngodonidae nematodes that are often detected in insectivorousreptiles.

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Fire is amongst one of the main ecological drivers, particularly in the Mediterranean. Despite being a fire-adapted region, over the last few years we have seen an increase in the frequency of this type of disturbance. In 2017, a large fire in Mata da Margaraça, located in a protected area in central Portugal, created an adequate opportunity to assess its impacts. In this study, we evaluated the effect of fire severity on the abundance, richness, and diversity of reptiles. Richness and diversity were not affected by the cline of fire severity. However, at species-specific level, Psammodromus algirus, a common lizard and habitat generalist Mediterranean species, had its abundance positively affected with the increase of fire severity. The absence of a linear response from this taxonomic group reinforces the need for further studies on post-fire response, key information for the design and implementation of mitigation measures in the future.

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Our present study is an inventory of Amphibians and Reptiles at region of Beni Aziz. The work involves the index of the presence / absence and distribution. The selected zones are: Mountainous site (Djebels) (Sd), cultivated Site (Sc) and humid Site (Oued El kebir ) (So), different methods are used: listens chants anuran, the dip netting for larvae and tadpoles, search streams, visual inventory of Amphibians and Reptiles, trapping (pot Berber) for lizards and amphibians, search under various objects for snakes. We recorded 7 Amphibians and 15 Reptiles. The results also include the biogeographic status, distribution and habitat. We have elaborated an illustrated catalog of existing species in conclusion.

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The authors report on predation by salmonid fish on some reptile species in two tributaries of the Tanaro river in the Alessandria province (NW Italy). The remains of Podarcis muralis, Anguis fragilis and of an undetermined colubrid of the genus Natrix were found in bromatological analyses performed on 117 Oncorhynchus mykiss specimens. Salmonid predation on herpetofauna once again confirms the alimentary opportunism of these fishes; however, predation is an occasional phenomenon and not a threat to the local reptile populations.

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The squamates are composed of many taxa, among which there is morphological variation in the vomeronasal organ (VNO). To elucidate the evolution of chemoreception in squamate reptiles, morphological data from the VNO from a variety of squamate species is required. In this study, the morphology of the VNO of the grass lizard Takydromus tachydromoides was examined using light and electron microscopy. The VNO consists of a pair of dome-shaped structures, which communicate with the oral cavity. There are no associated glandular structures. Microvilli are present on the apical surfaces of receptor cells in its sensory epithelium, as well as on supporting cells, and there are centrioles and ciliary precursor bodies on the dendrites. In addition to ciliated cells and basal cells in the non-sensory epithelium, there is a novel type of non-ciliated cell in T. tachydromoides. They have constricted apical cytoplasm and microvilli instead of cilia, and are sparsely distributed in the epithelium. Based on these results, the variation in the morphology of the VNO in scincomorpha, a representative squamate taxon, is discussed.

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Research of fauna and biology of particular species of reptiles in the area of Nature park Papuk were done in the period from February 2009 to September 2009, in 15 locations. The transect method was used in data gathering on reptiles. The sampled units were measured for length or photographed, and during sampling the environmental parametres were measured. The collected data were entered in the database and with the help of GIS technology distribution maps of particular species on the examined area were made. The species Natrix natrix and Lacerta viridis had the largest quantitative structure. The eudominant species were established to be Natrix natrix, Lacerta viridis, Natrix tessellata and Lacerta vivipara, while the recent species are Vipera berus and Ablepharus kitaibelii. The numerousness of species in the researched area as well as their distribution are the result of various conditions in microhabitats, where species find the optimal conditions for survival. Furthermore, seasonal and daily dynamics were analysed. Daily activities, of species and of individuals, show a decrease of value from morning to afternoon, and as far as seasonal dynamics is concerned, the most intensive period of appearance of reptile is in the period from July to September.

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Predation usually selects for visual crypsis, the colour matching between an animal and its background. Geographic co-variation between animal and background colourations is well known, but how crypsis varies along elevational gradients remains unknown. We predict that dorsal colouration in the lizard Psammodromus algirus should covary with the colour of bare soil—where this lizard is mainly found—along a 2200 m elevational gradient in Sierra Nevada (SE Spain). Moreover, we predict that crypsis should decrease with elevation for two reasons: (1) Predation pressure typically decreases with elevation, and (2) at high elevation, dorsal colouration is under conflicting selection for both crypsis and thermoregulation. By means of standardised photographies of the substratum and colourimetric measurements of lizard dorsal skin, we tested the colour matching between lizard dorsum and background. We found that, along the gradient, lizard dorsal colouration covaried with the colouration of bare soil, but not with other background elements where the lizard is rarely detected. Moreover, supporting our prediction, the degree of crypsis against bare soil decreased with elevation. Hence, our findings suggest local adaptation for crypsis in this lizard along an elevational gradient, but this local adaptation would be hindered at high elevations.

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Local adaptation is a dynamic process by which different allele combinations are selected in different populations at different times, and whose genetic signature can be inferred by genome-wide outlier analyses. We combined gene flow estimates with two methods of outlier detection, one of them independent of population coancestry (CIOA) and the other one not (ROA), to identify genetic variants favored when ecology promotes phenotypic convergence. We analyzed genotyping-by-sequencing data from five populations of a lizard distributed over an environmentally heterogeneous range that has been changing since the split of eastern and western lineages ca. 3 mya. Overall, western lizards inhabit forest habitat and are unstriped, whereas eastern ones inhabit shrublands and are striped. However, one population (Lerma) has unstriped phenotype despite its eastern ancestry. The analysis of 73,291 SNPs confirmed the east–west division and identified nonoverlapping sets of outliers (12 identified by ROA and 9 by CIOA). ROA revealed ancestral adaptive variation in the uncovered outliers that were subject to divergent selection and differently fixed for eastern and western populations at the extremes of the environmental gradient. Interestingly, such variation was maintained in Lerma, where we found high levels of heterozygosity for ROA outliers, whereas CIOA uncovered innovative variants that were selected only there. Overall, it seems that both the maintenance of ancestral variation and asymmetric migration have counterbalanced adaptive lineage splitting in our model species. This scenario, which is likely promoted by a changing and heterogeneous environment, could hamper ecological speciation of locally adapted populations despite strong genetic structure between lineages.

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Spontaneous regrowth of retinal ganglion cell (RGC) axons occurs after optic nerve (ON) transection in the lizard Gallotia galloti. To gain more insight into this event we performed an immunohistochemical study on selected neuron and glial markers, which proved useful for analyzing the axonal regrowth process in different regeneration models. In the control lizards, RGCs were beta‐III tubulin‐ (Tuj1) and HuCD‐positive. The vesicular glutamate transporter‐1 (VGLUT1) preferentially stained RGCs and glial somata rather than synaptic layers. In contrast, SV2 and vesicular GABA/glycine transporter (VGAT) labeling was restricted to both plexiform layers. Strikingly, the strong expression of glutamine synthetase (GS) in both Müller glia processes and macroglial somata revealed a high glutamate metabolism along the visual system. Upregulation of Tuj1 and HuCD in the surviving RGCs was observed at all the timepoints studied (1, 3, 6, 9, and 12 months postlesion). The significant rise of Tuj1 in the optic nerve head and optic tract (OTr) by 1 and 6 months postlesion, respectively, suggests an increase of the beta‐III tubulin transport and incorporation into newly formed axons. Persistent Tuj1+ and SV2+ puncta and swellings were abnormally observed in putative degenerating/dystrophic fibers. Unexpectedly, neuron‐like cells of obscure significance were identified in the control and regenerating ON‐OTr. We conclude that: 1) the persistent upregulation of Tuj1 and HuCD favors the long‐lasting axonal regrowth process; 2) the latter succeeded despite the ectopia and dystrophy of some regrowing fibers; and 3) maintenance of the glutamate‐glutamine cycle contributes to the homeostasis and plasticity of the system.

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We calculated growth rate for the spiny-footed lizard (Acanthodactylus erythrurus) inhabiting coastal eastern Spain from long-term mark-recapture data. Growth curves differ between sexes, with males growing faster than females and achieving larger size maximums. In this population each sex reaches maturity at about 300 days of age, approximately 34% faster than males, and 28% faster than females studied in a population further south and west in Iberia. Our logarithmic growth model has an accuracy of 96.8% and high statistical significance ( r = 0.96 for males and r = 0.97 for females). Although both the exponential curve of “best fit” for growth estimated for males (r = 0.81), and the linear curve of “best fit” estimated for females ( r = 0.77) in a population from Cadiz (Busack & Jaksic, 1982) are also significant. The overlap between growth curves and the general data cloud of the population showed that at the end of the year the proportion of individuals younger than one year was 80% and the proportion of individuals older than one year was 20%. Our data, in agreement with calculated maximum life spans for males (1.9 years) and females (2.1 years) in Cadiz, suggest a life span of approximately two years for both sexes. Females seem to reproduce only in a unique season in their lives, at this locality, as in Cadiz (Busack & Klosterman, 1987) they likely lay only one clutch, whereas females in Morocco (Bons, 1962) may produce two.

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Trophic ecology is one of the most important aspects of a species’ ecology and it is crucial when trying to assess how different species interact in an ecosystem. Showing how the diet intraspecifically changes in different body sizes, sexes or habitats and how trophic resources are shared interspecifically allows to understand how the ecosystem functions. With this objective, we studied the diet and trophic ecology of Acanthodactylus erythrurus, Psammodromus algirus and Psammodromus edwardsianus, which are in syntropy in the Albufera de Valencia Natural Park. We collected a total of 485 faecal samples and could identify 18 different prey groups. The main prey groups in A. erythrurus were Hymenoptera, Coleoptera and Hemiptera; in P. algirus, Lepidoptera, Arachnida, Coleoptera, Diptera, Hemiptera and Orthoptera; and in P. edwardsianus, Coleoptera, Hemiptera and Arachnida. Our results show that A. erythrurus seems to be the most specialized species, having the lowest values of trophic niche amplitude and the lowest intraspecific diet variation. Although this species is known to feed mainly on ants, our results indicate that mirmecophagy seems to be especially important in juveniles. Indeed we observed in all three species a niche separation between small and big individuals, indicating that diet changes with age. We could also evidence a resource partitioning between A. erythrurus and P. algirus, presenting a niche overlap of only 51.6%. In conclusion, there are various factors playing together shaping the diet of a species in a certain environment: behavioural, ecological, environmental and physiological factors.

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Although lizards are important hosts for hard ticks (Ixodidae), very few studies have been conducted in South Korea. To determine whether or not hard ticks can infest lizards endemic to South Korea, we examined 77 lizards of four species (Eremias argus, Sincella vandenburghi, Takydromus amurensis, and Takydromus wolteri) that were collected at 22 different sites between April and October 2010. We confirmed that all four lizard species can be infested by Ixodes nipponensis larvae or nymphs. Of the 62 E. argus examined, we found an average of 12.5 larvae on two lizards and an average of one nymph on one lizard. We found seven nymphs on one S. vandenburghi. We found an average of two nymphs on two of the five T. amurensis and an average of one nymph on four of the nine T. wolteri. Ixodes nipponensis larvae and nymphs were found most frequently on the foreleg axillae (87.8%), followed by the forelegs (7.3%), the eyelids (2.4%), and the ears (2.4%) of the lizards. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of I. nipponensis infestations of lizards endemic to South Korea.

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There are many factors affecting population dynamics, both abiotic and biotic. One of the most important biotic factors affecting different ecological aspects of a species is competition. But there is relatively little research focussing on the effect of competition on population dynamics. Thus, we studied population dynamics of three insectivorous lizard species (Acanthodactylus erythrurus, Psammodromus algirus and Psammodromus edwardsianus) which cohabit in our study area. We carried out periodic censuses and samplings during 2015 and 2017. Our results seem to confirm that a high level of competition can alter some aspects of population dynamics. Also body size seems to play a role, as most adjustments we detected were related to small size classes and the most affected species was P. edwardsianus. Some possible responses to competition we detected were an advance of the reproduction period, increased growth rates and biasing the sex ratio notably towards males (as higher testosterone levels lead to more aggression and this improves success rates in interspecific encounters). However, our study area is highly anthropized and further research is needed to discern if these adjustments are really exclusively related to competition or if human disturbance also plays a role.

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Mechanisms affecting consistent interindividual behavioral variation (i.e., animal personality) are of wide scientific interest. In poikilotherms, ambient temperature is one of the most important environmental factors with a direct link to a variety of fitnessrelated traits. Recent empirical evidence suggests that individual differences in boldness are linked to behavioral thermoregulation strategy in heliothermic species, as individuals are regularly exposed to predators during basking. Here, we tested for links between behavioral thermoregulation strategy, boldness, and individual state in adult males of the high-mountain Carpetan rock lizard (Iberolacerta cyreni). Principal component analysis revealed the following latent links in our data: (i) a positive relationship of activity with relative limb length and color brightness (PC1, 23% variation explained), (ii) a negative relationship of thermoregulatory precision with parasite load and risk-taking (PC2, 20.98% variation explained), and (iii) a negative relationship between preferred body temperature and relative limb length (PC3, 19.23% variation explained). We conclude that differences in boldness and behavioral thermoregulatory strategy could be explained by both stable and labile state variables. The moderate link between behavioral thermoregulatory strategy and risk-taking personality in our system is plausibly the result of differences in reproductive state of individuals or variation in ecological conditions during the breeding season.

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“Extinction. An exhibition, a genetic data base and a survey on collections of extinct or endangered vertebrates located in Italian Natural History Museums” originated in 2014 as a joint project of the University of Padua, the Museo Regionale di Scienze Naturali of Turin (MRSN), the MUSE - Science Museum of Trento, and FEM2-Ambiente s.r.l. (University of Milan-Bicocca). The project idea was based on the collaboration between different institutions (universities, museums of local authorities, university spin-off), in order to start a catalogue of specimens and species of vertebrates under threat of extinction and housed in the collections of Italian natural history museums, with the aim of conducting genetic research on preserved specimens and enhancing its conservationist importance. This was possible thanks to the contribution of the Ministry of Education, University and Research, which allowed to: i) activate the census of the collections; ii) support the investigations on the DNA of a critically endangered species, the Aeolian lizard Podarcis raffonei; iii) carry out three ostensive activities dedicated to the extinction phenomena of vertebrates, carried out at the MUSE in Trento, at the Biodiversity Garden of Padua University and in Turin in spaces of Regione Piemonte

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Acute oxygen consumption determ inations for both adults and sub-adults of L. vivipara were made over the temperature range 5-30°C during summer and winter. D uring winter dormancy, both adults and sub-adults were found to have a m etabolic rate l ower than t h e metabolic rate of s u m m er animals at each experim ental temperature. This reduction of oxygen consumption in winter lizards can be interpreted as an `inverse compensation` ( Precht`s Type ) pattern of response). It is concluded that this adj ustment can reduce energy costs during the winter period and is a pre-requisite for survival during winte r dormancy.

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In view of the import of allochthonous clades of the Common Wall Lizard Podarcis muralis into Germany, the Mainz Basin presents an interesting situation. Rhineland-Palatinate and Hessen have the indigenous subspecies brongniardii, Eastern France clade. It is restricted to the hill areas. On the south bank of the Rhine in the Mainz Basin it has its southernmost locality at Bingen-Gaulsheim. On the north bank its distribution in the Mainz Basin becomes spottier towards the East, because the south-facing slopes of the Rheingau get less and less steep; along the Rhine the contingent distribution area ends near Oestrich-Winkel. Some 30 km east of Gaulsheim, the Mainz-Budenheim quarry and its vicinity harbour the subspecies brongniardii, Western France clade. This is due to a relocation in 2007-2009 from the “llmenauer Aue”, a railway track habitat in central Mainz along the lower Gonsbach creek. The Ilmenauer Aue and the adjacent industrial park near the freight harbour have been under substantial construction, but some lizards can still be found in the area. The wall lizards of the south embankment of the harbour peninsula near the harbour entry have a yellow brown basic dorsal colouration, which may have given rise to the buckskin type of colouration and pattern which may be observed in the Budenheim quarry. East of the quarry and its vicinity, the lizards are found at Budenheim in the gardens of Kreuzer Hof, a small settlement on the Rhine. As some lizards of the relocation effort may not have arrived in the quarry, they may have been released in supposedly suitable habitats. This rather than rafting with the Rhine currents may explain their suspected mixing with the indigenous clade on the opposite, northern bank of the Rhine in two locations: - the wall along the towing path between Eltville and Walluf (east of Oestrich-Winkel), where they form a large population, which is basically tied to the wall, and has expanded neither into the city of Eltville nor into the Rheingau hills of the hinterland nor into the eastern part of Walluf; - the Rhine embankment of Mainz-Kastel (near Theodor-Heuss bridge), where they drive the Eastern France clade into the shadier areas, particularly those on the edge of the distribution area; the Western France clade has spread to the nearby railway tracks, southeast at least to Mainz-Kastel railway station. While the protected meadowlands of the Schierstein water works on the Rhine east of Walluf are without lizards, a small population of wall lizards exists at Schierstein harbour entry and the eastern end of the harbour. Predominantly these lizards show the characters of the indigenous Eastern France clade, but sporadic Western France clade influence cannot be excluded. In the southeast of Wiesbaden, in the lower portion of a south-facing slope of a former, now long abandoned vineyard, there is the Cyperus population of wall lizards. It stems from imports mainly from Northern Italy before, during and shortly after WW I. It is said to have extended to the Dyckerhoff quarries in the northwest, to the Erbenheim cemetary and its vicinity in the north where it is now extinct due to the harsher uphill climate and a lack of unshaded vertical structures, and to the allotment gardens in the east while elsewise being surrounded by impenetrable fields and woods. This population is dominated by the subspecies maculiventris, Southern Alps clade. In the main population the green dorsum, which characteristic of the subspecies nigriventris, has been reduced to yellow spots; this is explained by the eutrophy in the main new habitat. However, the green colour still exists in some rare individuals and especially in the Hessler farm subpopulation Most other locality reports for wall lizards at least in the Wiesbaden area are erroneous; they are based on juvenile sand lizards; the sand lizard Lacerta a. agilis is common in the Mainz Basin. The morphology and behaviour of the three main wall lizard clades in the Mainz basin (ssp. brongniadii, Eastern Facne clade and Western France clade, as well as ssp. maculiventris) are compared in order to facilitate recognition in the field and to substantiate the lack of substantial threat for the indigenous lizard fauna. The special temperature and habitat requirements as well as the lack of inherited specific threat avoidance techniques (beyond avoiding the flood-prone areas) of the southern clades of the Common Wall Lizard restrict them to a spotty distribution in Germany.

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Background To date, the only estimate of the heritability of telomere length in wild populations comes from humans. Thus, there is a need for analysis of natural populations with respect to how telomeres evolve. Methodology/Principal Findings Here, we show that telomere length is heritable in free-ranging sand lizards, Lacerta agilis. More importantly, heritability estimates analysed within, and contrasted between, the sexes are markedly different; son-sire heritability is much higher relative to daughter-dam heritability. We assess the effect of paternal age on Telomere Length (TL) and show that in this species, paternal age at conception is the best predictor of TL in sons. Neither paternal age per se at blood sampling for telomere screening, nor corresponding age in sons impact TL in sons. Processes maintaining telomere length are also associated with negative fitness effects, most notably by increasing the risk of cancer and show variation across different categories of individuals (e.g. males vs. females). We therefore tested whether TL influences offspring survival in their first year of life. Indeed such effects were present and independent of sex-biased offspring mortality and offspring malformations. Conclusions/Significance TL show differences in sex-specific heritability with implications for differences between the sexes with respect to ongoing telomere selection. Paternal age influences the length of telomeres in sons and longer telomeres enhance offspring survival.

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Die Vorliegende Studie belegt das Vorkommen von Mesalina brevirostris BLANFORD, 1874 in der Türkei. Neun Exemplare (fünf Männchen, vier Weibchen) wurden in Akçakale (Sanliurfa) nahe der türkisch-syrischen Grenze am 6 und 7. Mai 2002 gefangen. Die Pholidosemerkmale der neun Exemplare aus Akçakale ähneln denen, wie sie mehrere Autoren für syrische Tiere angeben. Die Anzahl der Dorsalia-Querreihen ist bei den Exemplaren von Akçakale (49,0 - 57,0; Mittelwert 53,2) deutlich größer als bei Tieren aus dem östlichen und zentralen Syrien (36,0 - 47,0; Mittelwert 40,3). Nach metrischen, meristischen und Farbmuster-Merkmalen sind die neun Exemplare von Südost-Anatolien der typischen Form Mesalina brevirostris brevirostris zuzuordnen.

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Background: Identifying the factors that contribute to divergence among populations in mate preferences is important for understanding of the manner in which premating reproductive isolation might arise and how this isolation may in turn contribute to the evolutionary process of population divergence. Here, we offered female northern grass lizards (Takydromus septentrionalis) a choice of males between their own population and another four populations to test whether the preferences that females display in the mating trials correlate with phenotypic adaptation to local environments, or to the neutral genetic distance measured by divergence of mitochondrial DANN sequence loci. Results: Females showed a strong preference for native over foreign males. Females that mated with native versus foreign males did not differ from each other in mating latency, or copulation duration. From results of the structural equation modelling we knew that: 1) geographical distance directly contributed to genetic differentiation and environmental dissimilarity; 2) genetic differentiation and environmental dissimilarity indirectly contributed to female mate preference, largely through their effects on morphological divergence; and 3) females judged mates by body shape (appearance) and discriminated more strongly against morphologically less familiar allopatric males. Conclusions: Local adaptation rather than neutral genetic distance influences female mate preference in T. Septentrionali. The tendency to avoid mating with foreign males may indicate that, in T. septentrionalis, local adaptations are more valuable than genetic novelties. Our results highlight the importance of comprehensive studies integrating ecological, molecular and behavioral approaches to understand population divergence in female mate preferences as the consequence of local adaptations.

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The disappearance of native seed dispersers due to anthropogenic activities is often accompanied by the introduction of alien species, which may to some extent replace the ecological service provided by the extinct ones. Yet, little empirical evidence exists demonstrating the evolutionary consequences of such alien “replacement.” Here, we document the conflicting selection exerted on seed size by two native lizards (Podarcis lilfordi and P. pityusensis) and an alien mammal species (Martes martes), all acting as legitimate seed dispersers of the Mediterranean relict Cneorum tricoccon. While lizards mostly exerted a negative directional selection on seed diameter, especially P. pityusensis, the much larger pine marten exerted positive selection on seed size. Our findings suggest that this among‐disperser variation in the selection regimes, together with the occurrence of spatial variation in the presence of each seed disperser, help to create the geographical variation observed for seed size of C. tricoccon. To our knowledge, this is the first empirical evidence showing opposing selective pressures between native and alien species in the seed dispersal process in an invaded ecosystem.

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A witness reports the release of 100 Western Green Lizards Lacerta bilineata, originating from the canton of Ticino, Switzerland in the early 1950ies. The place of release is a residence area with garden-surrounded houses at Hasenberg Mountain within the city limits of Stuttgart, Germany. A permanent population established itself, remained undetected until 1996 and is meanwhile observed by the public. The area was formerly inhabited by Sand Lizards Lacerta agilis who vanished ca. 1970. The present accompanying reptile fauna consists of Slow Worms Anguis fragilis and Smooth Snakes Coronella austriaca. Since 2017 Common Wall Lizards are observed, phenotypically assigned to Podarcis muralis maculiventris of the Southern Alps lineage.

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The author reports on the food and the analysis of faecal pellets of Gallotia atlantica on Fuerteventura (Canary Islands, Spain). The results show that this lizard is omnivorous, but feeds predominantly on insects. It uses a wide range of food, especially Diptera, Coleoptera and Hymenoptera (Formicidae), and adapts quickly to natural changes in food resources. After rainfall and the emergency of new growing vegetation, insect laevae (especially caterpillars) are increasingly eaten by the lizards. Finally, in one of the faecal samples little bones and scales were found and revealed a case of cannibalism in this species.

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The authors report on a herpetological excursion from April 22 to May 7 to northwestern Iran. The route led from Tehran via Esfahan, Chelgerd, Kuhdasht, Kermanshah, Marivan, Täbriz, Zanjan and Manjil back to Tehran. The first part of the article deals with reptiles and amphibians found in the Zagros Mountains.

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A brief report on the longevity in captivity of Podarcis pityusensis and Podarcis lilfordi.

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This is a review of fifty-one non-native species, subspecies, intergrades or hybrids of amphibians and reptiles recorded as living wild in the London Area. Of these fifty-one taxa, referred to here as ‘types’, around twenty-one are amphibians of which fourteen have bred successfully and thirty are reptiles of which just two have been proven to breed. Other types may have bred unrecorded. A rapid increase in the number of types of terrapin in the wild has been observed since trade restrictions on red-eared terrapin importation in 1997. Many new species, mostly North American, but including those from Africa and Australia, can now be found in the wild. The traditional split of Water Frogs into two species and a hybrid has now diversified to include many more types that may interbreed when mixed. The distribution and spread of Water Frogs over the last two hundred years in this part of southeast England is described for the first time. Brief descriptions and identification notes are provided and zoogeographic and historical aspects of colonization are considered. Part 1 refers to distribution and aspects of impacts from the species’ role in the food chain of the communities where they have colonized. The trade in herpetofauna and nature conservation and welfare issues are considered. Aspects of disease impacts and philosophical considerations are described in Part 2.

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Understanding the evolution of thermal tolerance in ectotherms is particularly important given the current period of rapid change in the environment and thermal climate. Specifically, introduced species have the potential to evolve different thermal tolerances than native populations due to rapid evolution and novel selection pressures. Our study examined critical thermal tolerance in two introduced lizard species, the European wall lizard (Podarcis muralis) in Ohio and Kentucky, and the Mediterranean gecko (Hemidactylus turcicus) from Texas through Alabama. We tested the hypotheses that critical thermal maximum, minimum, and breadth varies among introduced populations of P. muralis and H. turcicus, and that critical thermal tolerance broadens when moving away from the introduction site, because dispersal across novel environments may remove dispersers with narrow thermal tolerances. We found that among P. muralis populations, CTmin and thermal breadth were significantly different. Specifically, when moving away from the introduction site, lizards exhibited increased cold tolerance and broader thermal breadth. Variability in thermal parameters were also lowest at the site closest to the introduction point in P. muralis. In contrast, H. turcicus had no significant differences in critical thermal minimum, maximum, or breadth among sites, or with respect to distance from introduction point. However, we did find little variability in thermal maximum, compared to greater variability in overall tolerance and critical thermal minimums. Thus, this study shows that selection on thermal tolerance and dispersal characteristics occur in novel climatic environments. Understanding how thermal tolerance changes over time can aid in predicting establishment and movement of introduced species, with applications for native species during a time of global climatic change.

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Telomere length is restored primarily through the action of the reverse transcriptase telomerase, which may contribute to a prolonged lifespan in some but not all species and may result in longer telomeres in one sex than the other. To what extent this is an effect of proximate mechanisms (e.g. higher stress in males, higher oestradiol/oestrogen levels in females), or is an evolved adaptation (stronger selection for telomere length in one sex), usually remains unknown. Sand lizard (Lacerta agilis) females have longer telomeres than males and better maintain telomere length through life than males do. We also show that telomere length more strongly contributes to life span and lifetime reproductive success in females than males and that telomere length is under sexually diversifying selection in the wild. Finally, we performed a selection analysis with number of recruited offspring into the adult population as a response variable with telomere length, life span and body size as predictor variables. This showed significant differences in selection pressures between the sexes with strong ongoing selection in females, with these three predictors explaining 63% of the variation in recruitment. Thus, the sexually dimorphic telomere dynamics with longer telomeres in females is a result of past and ongoing selection in sand lizards. Finally, we compared the results from our selection analyses based on Telometric-derived data to the results based on data generated by the software ImageJ. ImageJ resulted in shorter average telomere length, but this difference had virtually no qualitative effect on the patterns of ongoing selection.

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Although most plants depend on different animals for pollination and seed dispersal, sometimes the same animal species provides both functions, being thus involved in what has been termed a ‘double mutualism’. Very little is known on the effectiveness of such species as both pollinators and seed dispersers, and even less on the intraspecific level differences at the contribution of an animal mutualist to plant fitness. In this study, we focused on the interaction between a Mediterranean shrub Cneorum tricoccon (Rutaceae) and the Balearic lizard Podarcis lilfordi (Lacertidae) in order to assess: 1) the role of this lizard as a legitimate pollinator of the plant (previously thought to be exclusively insect‐pollinated), and 2) the intraspecific variation in the use of flowers and fruits by lizard individuals, comparing males, females and juveniles. We further evaluated whether lizards show different fruit size selection depending on sex and age, with potential consequences for seed germination. Lizards visited more flowers and selected more hermaphrodite flowers than insects did, leading to relative increases in both fruit and seed set. Interestingly, female and juvenile lizards were the main flower visitors, whereas males were the main fruit consumers. Males selected the largest fruits (bearing the largest seeds) though this did not increase seed germination, which was only ca 15%. We concluded that P. lilfordi acts as a legitimate pollinator of C. tricoccon and, thus, confirm that this system constitutes a new case of double mutualism, especially common in island compared to mainland systems. Moreover, our findings show a large variation among conspecific individuals in their role as either pollinators or seed dispersers, with potential implications for plant reproductive success. Our study, therefore, highlights the importance of evaluating plant–animal interactions at the intraspecific level, and calls for more in‐depth studies on the consequences of such intraspecific variation.

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Anthropogenic activity often results in habitat fragmentation that can negatively impact biodiversity by destroying viable habitat and reducing the connectivity of the landscape. Anthropogenic features (such as rail ways) can also have the opposite effect, facilitating the expansion of certain species. Here we demonstrate such a case, wherein anthropogenic activity and structures facilitate the dispersal of a species whose capacity for territorial expansion is limited in the natural environment. Using habitat suitability and connectivity models, we show that the Common Wall Lizard (Podarcis muralis) most likely prefers railways as a means to disperse into new habitats and/or maintain population connectivity across a fragmented habitat (i.e. from their southern populations, moving north along rail way tracks to colonize new suitable habitats). Furthermore, we predict the route and location of future colonization events based on availability of viable habitats and corridors to them. The potential impact of this invasion is estimated to be relatively low.

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For the study purposes, in 1971., five pairs of Italian wall lizard, Podarcis siculus, were transfered from their native island Pod Kopište onto Pod Mrčara island. After 36 years scientists discovered that translocated lizard species wiped out the indigenous lizard species (Podarcis melisellensis) and rapid adaptive evolution occured. They found differences in morphology, anatomy, physiology and bihavioural changes between individuals on this two islands. Our aim was to determine differences in aggression between populations and between gender within and between this two island populations. The research was carried out on 42 individuals of P. siculus from Pod Mrčara and 50 individuals from Pod Kopište. Prior to the experimental procedure, individuals passed the three-day habituation period followed by open field testing in which we investigated three main behavioral categories related to interacting with another lizars (tolerance, aggression and retreat) and time spent in the central arena zone as an indicator of dominance. The research have shown that both males and females from Pod Kopište are more aggressive then both males and females from Pod Mrčara, and that in general the population from Pod Kopište is more aggressive and dominant. Furthermore, the results have shown that aggression and retreat are related, so the more aggressive population from Pod Kopište is retreating more.

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Age variations by linear size and body proportions have been studied in population of the sand lizard (Lacerta agilis Linnaeus, 1758). It has been established, that not only linear body size increases, but also body proportions have a lot of changes. It is shown that four stages of maturity (juvenis, subadultus, adultus, adultus-senex) are well-defined by linear size, body proportions and reproductive organs in postembryonic development of this species.

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The use of fluctuating asymmetry (FA) as a measure of developmental instability and its relationship to stress and fitness is highly controversial. We examined whether the selection of different FA indices and traits influences the results of FA analysis. We chose four meristic traits and three FA indices (two single-trait and two multiple-trait indices) to assess FA levels in the common wall lizard (Podarcis muralis) from three different habitat types (urban, suburban and natural). Urbanization has already been linked to developmental instability in P. muralis. We therefore expected to detect different FA levels among the habitats. However, we also wanted to see whether we obtained the same patterns using different indices and traits. Our results showed that different traits can yield different FA patterns between habitats. The only statistically significant difference between habitats was detected for the FA2 index in femoral pores. The highest level of FA was detected in the urban population, while the lowest level was in the natural population. It is clear that caution must be exerted when deciding on which traits and indices are to be used for FA analysis

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Labelled testosterone- and oestradiol-binding molecules have been found in the cytosol and nuclei of lizard testes. DNA-cellulose affinity chromatography was used to separate putative sex-steroid-binding receptors (adhering molecules) and nonreceptor components (nonadhering molecules). A putative androgen receptor (Kd: 10(-10) mol l-1; 3-9 fmol g-1 tissue) was found mainly in the nuclei of testicular cells when actively undergoing spermatogenesis. This suggests that, as in higher vertebrates, testosterone is implicated in spermatogenetic step regulation (meiosis and spermiogenesis) in lizard testis. In the cytosol, testosterone-binding molecules (Kd: 10(-9) mol l-1; 384-784 fmol g-1 tissue) with several properties of androgen-binding proteins are present from autumn to spring. The behaviour of these molecules is consistent with the role assigned to androgen-binding proteins as androgen reservoir. A putative oestrogen receptor is present throughout the sexual cycle, except during the culmination phase (breeding). The putative oestrogen receptor may be involved in the regulation of the first spermatogenetic step (spermatogonia multiplication) and in the induction of post-reproductive refractoriness. This phase is present in temperate-zone lizards. These studies show that the evaluation of sex-steroid-binding molecules is useful in considering the relationships between sex hormones and spermatogenetic activity in the testes of lizards

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Podarcis muralis was identified on Moldova Veche Island (Romania), although naturallythe island lacks the species` appropriate habitats. P. muralis occurs in artificial habitats represented by stony piers. Probably, some individuals were brought by chance to the island together with the stones used for the pier. P. muralis is limited to this artificial habitat, without any possibility of further distribution.

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The island syndrome is a phenomenon in which high density island populations exhibit reduced aggression, decreased sexual dimorphism and decreased energy allocation to reproduction. The reversed island syndrome was observed in a fluctuating density, blue coloured population of Podarcis siculus klemmeri, which had higher levels of aggressivity and sexual dimorphism. The aim of this seminar paper was to compare the behavioral traits of tolerance, aggressivity and retreat in island and mainland population of Italian wall lizard (Podarcis siculus) by analyzing video-recordings of conducted behavioral trials in an open-type arena. The island population consisted of 5 pairs of males from the Pijavica island and the mainland population of 5 pairs of males from Kaštela. Males of high density population of the Pijavica island are normally coloured, while those of the land population have blue and yellow coloration of the ventral part of the body and head. During the analysis, all encounters were recorded and assigned to a predefined type and category of behavior. Males from the island population had 100 % tolerant encounters, while 3 pairs of land population showed encounters of aggressivity and retreat. Former characteristics of the island population correspond to the definition of island syndrome, which can be explained by reduced predation pressure and decreased interspecific competition.

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Urbanization is predominantly linked with negative effects on wildlife. Indeed, numerous human-induced environmental changes (e.g. habitat fragmentation and destruction, pollution, etc.) have a devastating effect on indigenous wildlife. However, urbanization, trough creating pockets of supernatural habitats, can have a positive effect on indigenous species. In our study, we wanted to examine how urbanization level (urban, suburban and natural habitats) affects Podarcis muralis populations across the Vojvodina region, Serbia. We tested (A) lizard’s pileus: (1) size and shape, (2) fluctuating asymmetry (FA), (3) allometry, (4) modularity, and (5) phenodeviant frequencies and (B) meristic traits (supraciliar plates, sublabial plates, subdigital lamellae of 4th hind limb toes, femoral pores): (1) fluctuating asymmetry (FA). Pileus examination gave some peculiar results: unexpectedly high FA level was observed in the natural population. On the other hand, analysis of meristic traits showed high FA in urban population. Importantly, some meristic characters revealed different patterns of FA, suggesting that caution must be practiced when deciding what characters are more appropriate for FA analysis. In addition, we built an ecological niche model for the populations inhabiting the Vojvodina region (consisted predominantly of anthropogenic habitats) and compared it with the one obtained for central and southern Serbia, where lizards mainly occupy natural habitats. With this comparison, we wanted to see what the similarities between natural and anthropogenic habitats are, and which environmental factors limit/enable common wall lizard to successfully inhabit urbanized areas.

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Immunolabelling for RhoV and actin in early regenerating tail of the lizard Podarcis muralis suggests involvement in epithelial and mesenchymal cell motility. Acta Zoologica, Stockolm. Immunolabelling for RhoV and α‐smooth muscle actin, genes that are highly expressed in the regenerating tail of lizards, shows that a main protein band immunolabelled for RhoV is seen at 65–70 kDa and only a weak band at 22–24 kDa. This suggests that alteration occurred during extraction or is due to biochemical processing of the protein. RhoV immunolabelled cells are present in apical and proximal regenerating epidermis during scale neogenesis. The apical ependyma is labelled but labelling fades and disappears in medial‐proximal regions, near the original spinal cord. Differentiating muscles and cartilage show low labelling. Ultrastructural immunolocalization of RhoV in wound keratinocytes shows labelling in regions containing actin filaments that associate with tonofilaments and desmosomes while a low labelling is present in mesenchymal cells. Filamentous regions of the nucleus, nuclear membrane and the nucleolus are immune‐labelled for RhoV. Similar localization is seen for actin that is present along the perimeters of keratinocytes associated with tonofilaments, in elongations of mesenchymal cells, in muscle satellite cells, endothelial and pericytes of blood vessels. It is suggested that RhoV and actin are associated in the dynamic cytoskeleton needed for the movements of epidermal and mesenchymal cells and in endothelial cells forming new blood vessels.

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Serial sections of 29 Lacerta agilis Linnaeus, 1758 embryos on the successive developmental stages, stained with hematoxylin-eosin or alcian blue-hematoxylin-eosin, were examined. It was found that trabecula cranii, acrochordal cartilage and pilae metopticae are the initial components of the orbito-temporal region of L. agilis scull. Taenia marginalis emerges first in embryogenesis and then taenia medialis forms. Frontal parts of taenia marginalis, that are the split-type structures, originate from planum supraseptale and their posterior parts originate from pilae accessoriae. Fenestra septalis forms due to thinning of the medial part of interorbital septum. Key words: skull development, reptiles, orbito-temporal region, interorbital septum, taenia marginalis, taenia medialis, planum supraseptale, pilae metopticae, pilae accessoriae, pilae antoticae.