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Prey often respond to predation risk by increasing refuge use, but this strategy may entail a loss of body condition. Factors responsible for this loss of body condition remain unclear. Also how prey deal with refuge use to cope with predation risk without incurring costs of body condition, and how initial body condition affects refuge use remain barely known. We analyzed in the field whether adult Iberolacerta cyreni lizards modify their escape strategies and refuge use in areas with different levels of habitat deterioration and ecotourism pressure, which represent different levels of predation risk, and the consequences of changes in antipredator behavior to body condition. Lizards inhabiting deteriorated areas, where risk is higher, remained closer to refuges, but decreased time spent hidden in refuges after attacks, probably to maintain similar body condition than lizards inhabiting natural areas. We performed two laboratory experiments to isolate potential costs of refuge use that might affect the body condition of male lizards: a) a decrease of the efficiency of digestion due to low temperatures inside refuges and/or b) a reduction in food intake. Results suggest that refuge use is costly in terms of body condition due to reduced food intake, but the loss of efficiency of digestion seems unimportant. Lizards modified refuge use in relation to their body condition, with lizards with worse condition decreasing time hidden after predatory attacks. We concluded that lizards compensated for increased predation risk with flexible antipredatory strategies, coping with risk without incurring costs for body condition.

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Deforestation may increase predation risk for prey because it may make prey more conspicuous and limit the number of refuges suitable to avoid predators. Therefore, prey may need to increase the magnitude of escape responses. However, excessive antipredatory effort might lead to a loss of body mass and a decrease in defense against parasites, with important consequences for short- and long-term fitness. We analyzed whether Psammodromus algirus (L., 1758) lizards that inhabit patches with different levels of deterioration of the vegetation within the same oak forest differed in relative abundance numbers, microhabitat use, antipredatory strategies, and health state. Results showed lizards selected similar microhabitats regardless of the level of deterioration of the vegetation and relative abundance of lizards was similar in both areas. However, habitat deterioration seemed to increase predation risk, at least for females, because they were detected at longer distances in deteriorated areas. Females seemed to adjust their antipredatory behavior accordingly to high risk of predation by increasing approach distances allowed to predators. The costs associated with frequent antipredatory displays might explain why females in deteriorated habitats had lower body condition and greater blood parasite loads than females in natural areas. This loss of body condition and increased parasitemia might have deleterious consequences for female fitness and therefore affect the maintenance of lizard populations in the long-term.

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The low-altitude populations of the threatenedlacertid lizard Iberolacerta monticola in A Coruña province have suffered population declines in the last decades. The present study has been done on the main population of this species in the Mandeo river basin, located in the river reserve of Chelo. Population size and density have been estimated, as well as other population parameters. We used the MARK program, which allows to use different variants of the Jolly-Seber method. In addition, we did an analysis of the sex-ratio and the structure of the population using size classes.The results indicated a high density, but limited to a reduced area with favourable habitat, surrounded by inadequate zones (forests with dense tree coverage),as well asa high mortality of immature individualsand an unequal proportion betweenimmaturesand adults. It seems to point out that this population shows insular characteristics. Other relevant data forthe survival of this population were obtained, as the apparent lack of predators, based on the low percentage of individuals with tail loss, or the reduced presence of individuals affected by ectoparasites of the genus Ixodes. The low number of observed movements points out that the individuals of this population are essentially sedentary. Some consequences for the survival of this population are set and some measures are proposed for its conservation.

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Light is essential for embryonic development in many oviparous animals including fish, amphibians, and birds. However, light may be harmful for reptile embryos developing underground where they are in complete darkness and beneath thin eggshells. Nonetheless, how embryonic light conditions affect reptile development and offspring remains largely unknown. Here we incubated eggs in dark and light conditions to determine the effects of light exposure on embryonic development and offspring visual ability, spatial cognitive ability and growth in a lacertid lizard, Eremias argus. Our experiments demonstrated that light stimulation shortened incubation duration of eggs, but did not affect hatching success, offspring size, visual ability or survival. More interestingly, light exposure during incubation decreased spatial cognitive ability and post-hatching growth of offspring. On the basis of negative effects on offspring growth rates, our study indicates that in squamate reptiles with thin eggshells, light exposure in early development has negative effects on offspring cognitive ability.

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Considering all costs associated to sex, sexual reproduction could be expected to be rare. However, we find sexual reproduction to be pervasive in nature, and only a reduced number of taxa are completely asexual. In fact, the variety of sex reproductive systems, mating techniques and traits, reveals that the organisms’ reproduction has been an expressive target of selection and adaptation throughout evolution. Sex is selected because it facilitates adaptation in complex and changing environments (Weismann, 1889), and this has been already shown empirically in several models. However, studies and theories developed concerning the paradox of sex will not be able to clarify the current distribution and abundance of asexual lineages in nature. The understanding of rates of origin and extinction of asexual lineages, together with the putative differential evolution rates in organisms with sexual or asexual reproduction, should be considered in the main “origin of sex” question. The model used here, the genus Darevskia, is the first true parthenogenetic vertebrate described. It is a highly speciose genus, currently including 27 species, of which seven are parthenogenetic and of hybrid origin. Only a few of the sexual species contributed for the hybridization events which originated the parthenogens clonal lineages, and these were directional: the maternal species were always Darevskia raddei or D. mixta, and the paternal always D. valentini or D. portshinskii. Using a set of microsatellite and mtDNA markers, we first start to study the role of hybridization in the origin of vertebrate parthenogens, the extent of gene flow with sexual relatives and the relation between hybridization, asexuality and polyploidy, in the context of the main theories of asexual evolution proposed to date. We focus on the D. unisexualis, D. uzzelli and D. armeniaca parthenogens and polyploid backcrosses found in sympatric locations between the parthenogens and its sexual parentals. We find that only specific parental pairs are responsible for the origin of vertebrate parthenogenesis, regardless of their phylogenetic distance. Despite the recurrent hybridization presently reported in Darevskia, asexuality originated multiple times but only in a single temporal event the past. Parthenogenetic females are capable of backcrossing with sexual males, but can only produce polyploid individuals with reduced fertility that do not contribute for gene flow between parthenogens and sexuals. The sexual reproduction machinery can be lost with time in the parthenogenetic hybrids, which are most likely the result of a post-zygotic reproductive barrier to gene flow in the speciation continuum of Darevskia sexual species. In order to reconstruct the phylogenetic inference of this group, a set of capture sequence probes were designed from a transcriptome de novo assembly. Phylogenetic inference reconstruction has been extensively used to ask several evolutionary biology questions. However, despite the exponential use of high-throughput sequencing technologies and its promising applications in phylogenetics, next generation sequencing (NGS) techniques are still far from being as widely used in this field as in other areas of evolutionary genetics. The workflow developed in this thesis has proved to be not only cost-effective, but also to produce a very high number of cross genome phylogenetically informative markers in this non-model species. Finally, taking advantage of the hundreds of cross genome markers developed, a species tree was constructed and within genus relationships evaluated. Introgression tests showed a widespread pattern of gene flow across the genus, not only recent between recently diverged clades, but also both recent and ancient gene flow between early diverging Darevskia clades. Several evidences of hybridization with gene flow between diverging clades have been found in other systems. However, such widespread patterns where introgression has happened between all major clades, and in a very high number of species pairs, are not frequently found. It is also found that gene flow is completely absent between parthenogens sexual parental pairs. In groups with sexual-parthenogenetic reproducing species, pre- or post-zygotic reproductive barriers could be more difficult to attain and hybrid asexuality can, thus, effectively create reproductive barriers between diverging sexual taxa, that were likely faced with recurrent secondary contact. The work presented in this thesis shows that only a few sexual species pairs were responsible for the origin of the parthenogens, that some species acted always as the maternal species and others always as the paternal, that the phylogenetic distances between each pair are included in a wide range interval, and that introgression is found widespread across the genus but absent between the parental pairs. Regardless of the reproduction type, this study also shows the relevance and depth of hybridization during divergence. As has been shown intensively, gene flow is common during speciation and clades divergence. However, it would be interesting to analyse other groups together and test if deep branch gene flow is found only in some exclusive groups (such as sexual-asexual genera) or if it is something more widespread. This work presented here moves Darevskia towards providing a model that can be used to understand the origin of asexuality in vertebrates. Here the basis for future studies about sex and asexuality is provided, so that a focus on the differential evolution rates genomes of both reproduction mode can be analysed.

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Sexual organisms should be better suited than asexual ones in a context of continuous evolution in response to opposite organisms in changing environments (“Red Queen” hypothesis of sex). However, sex also carries costs associated with the maintenance of males and mating (sex cost hypothesis). Here, both non-mutually excluding hypotheses are tested by analysing the infestation by haemogregarines of mixed communities of Darevskia rock lizards composed of parthenogens generated by hybridisation and their bisexual relatives. Prevalence and intensity were recorded from 339 adult lizards belonging to six species from five syntopic localities and analysed using Generalized Mixed-Models (GLMM). Both infestation parameters depended on host-size (like due to longer exposure with age), sex and, for intensity, species. Once accounting for locality and species, males were more parasitized than conspecific females with bisexual species, but no signal of reproductive mode itself on parasitization was recovered. Essentially, male-male interactions increased haemogregarine intensity while females either sexual or asexual had similar reproductive costs when in the same conditions. These findings deviate from the predictions from “Red Queen” dynamics while asymmetric gender costs are here confirmed. Thus, increased parasitization pressure on males adds to other costs, such as higher social interactions and lower fecundity, to explain why parthenogenetic lizards apparently prevail in the short-term evolutionary scale. How this is translated in the long-term requires further phylogenetic analysis.

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Während zweier Reisen in den Jahren 2005 und 2011 konnten insgesamt vier Arten der Echten Eidechsen (Lacertidae) für den Nationalpark Plitvicer Seen (Kroatien) fotografisch nachgewiesen werden. Die Waldeidechse (Zootoca vivipara vivipara), die Smaragdeidechse (Lacerta viridis viridis), die Mauereidechse (Podarcis muralis muralis) und die Kroatische Gebirgseidechse (Iberolacerta horvathi) kommen in unterschiedlichen Dichten und Lebensräumen im Nationalpark vor.

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Es wird über die Erfahrungen bei der Haltung und Nachzucht der Grünen Baumeidechse oder Afrikanischen Baumeidechse (Gastropholis prasina) berichtet.

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Neben den autochthonen Vorkommen der Westlichen Smaragdeidechse existieren in Baden-Württemberg seit einigen Jahren mindestens zwei auf Aussetzungen beruhende Populationen der Art. Diese beiden reproduktionsfähigen Bestände sind in Stuttgart und bei Tübingen angesiedelt.

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Während unseres Urlaubs auf den griechischen Inseln Paros und Antiparos im Mai 2019 (10.5. – 20.5. Paros und 21.5. – 25.5. Antiparos) konnten wir die Ägäische Mauereidechse (Podarcis erhardii) an mehreren und zum Teil bis dato unbekannten Stellen nachweisen. Mit Fotografien wird die hohe Variabilität der auf diesen Inseln verbreiteten Unterart Podarcis erhardii naxensis dargestellt und kommentiert. Die Riesensmaragdeidechse, hier in der Unterart Lacerta trilineata citrovittata verbreitet, haben wir trotz intensiver Suche leider nicht finden können. Bei Lefkes fanden wir aber überraschenderweise eine Population Gelbbauchunken (Bombina variegata). Hierbei handelt es sich um den Erstnachweis für Paros.

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Obligate parthenogenesis is found in only 0.1% of the vertebrate species, is thought to be relatively short lived and is typically of hybrid origin. However, neither the evolutionary persistence of asexuality in vertebrates, nor the conditions that allow the generation of new parthenogenetic lineages are currently well understood. It has been proposed that vertebrate parthenogenetic lineages arise from hybridisation between two divergent taxa within a specific range of phylogenetic distances (the ‘Balance Hypothesis’). Moreover, parthenogenetic species often maintain a certain level of hybridisation with their closest sexual relatives, potentially generating new polyploid hybrid lineages. Here we address the role of hybridisation in the origin and evolutionary lifespan of vertebrate parthenogens. We use a set of microsatellite markers to characterise the origins of parthenogens in the lizard genus Darevskia, to study the distinctiveness of sexual and asexual taxa currently in sympatry, and to analyse the evolutionary consequences of interspecific hybridisation between asexual females and sexual males. We find that parthenogens result from multiple past hybridisation events between species from specific lineages over a range of phylogenetic distances. This suggests that the Balance Hypothesis needs to allow for lineage-specific effects, as envisaged in the Phylogenetic Constraint Hypothesis. Our results show recurrent backcrossing between sexual and parthenogenic Darevskia but neither gene flow nor formation of new asexual lineages. We suggest that, along with their demographic advantage, parthenogens gain additional leverage to outcompete sexuals in nature when the retention of sexual reproductive machinery allows backcrossing with their sexual ancestors.

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Contribution to the knowledge of the distribution of Horvath’s rock lizard Iberolacerta horvathi and Common wall lizard Podarcis muralis in the Friuli Venezia Giulia and in the Veneto regions (North-eastern Italy) – Data collected between 2002 and 2008, during an investigation aimed to fi nd unknown populations of Iberolacerta horvathi and at extending the knowledge about the distribution of Podarcis muralis in Northern Friuli Venezia Giulia and Veneto, are given. Iberolacerta horvathi has been found in 22 new localities, increasing of about 45% of those previously known in Italy, between 520 and 1825 metres a.s.l.. Podarcis muralis has been found in 103 localities, most of them in UTM squares (10X10 Km) not covered by the national atlas. In Friuli Venezia Giulia the species has been found regularly over 900 metres a.s.l. where suitable habitats are present, and locally it reaches 1800 metres a.s.l.. The two species have been found in syntopy in eight localities between 520 and 1800 metres a.s.l.. The Mount Dimon represents the highest locality where in Friuli Venezia Giulia Podarcis muralis has been found and the two lizards in Italy are in syntopy. Finally it has to be pointed out that the works for construction, maintenance and extension of walls, roads etcetera might drastically reduce the suitable habitat of the two species.

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There are limited studies on the Iskenderun Lizard, Acanthodactylus schreiberi Boulenger, 1878, which is known to distribute in a single area in Turkey, up to now. This study aimed to determine the distribution area, some ecological features, population size, species threatening factors and precautions to be taken for it. As a result of the field studies, it was determined that Acanthodactylus schreiberi distributes in the 7 local areas from Burnaz Coast in Erzin district to Dörtyol district, Hatay Province. Population size estimated as 13193 specimens.

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After a short synthesis of the present knowledge on the distribution of the Horvath’s rock lizard (Iberolacerta horvathi) in Italy, the Author refers about recent news and field verifications on the distribution of the lizard in Veneto and Friuli Venetia Giulia Regions (north-eastern Italy).

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Background The present study aimed to illustrate comparative morphological, histological, and functional variations of the hyoid apparatus of Acanthodactylus boskianus and Ptyodactylus guttatus. Result The hyoid apparatuses and musculature of the two investigated species are well-developed. The hyoid apparatuses exhibit high mobility with different articulation sites between their skeletal elements. The degree of ossification of the hyoid apparatus of gecko is more developed than that of the lacertid lizard. In P. guttatus, a well-developed synchondrosis articulation appears between the basihyoid and ceratobranchialis of the hyoid apparatus. Meanwhile, in A. boskianus, the articular ligament which appears between basihyoid and ceratobranchialis is less developed and also appears as a ligament connection between the two parts of hyoid cornua in which ligaments provide more mobility to the hyoid of lacertid lizard. Conclusion The results reflect a phylogenetically informative character about these clad and explain the different functional demands imposed on the hyoid apparatus as well as confirm the important role of hyoid apparatus in the movement of the tongue during the prey transport.

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Predation is one of the most important factors affecting biology, ecology and behaviour of the prey. We have studied predation of the common lizard (Zootoca vivipara) by the great grey shrike (Lanius excubitor) in farmland habitats in western Poland. Shrike caches were used as a source of information about preyed lizards. Shrikes hunt significantly more adult males than females, juveniles and sub-adults; the pattern was similar over all three study years. Male lizard had longer activity time than female; therefore, they seem to be under predation pressure for a longer time during breeding season. Capture and count transect data of common lizard populations living within and outside shrike territories showed significant seasonal differences: within shrike territories, there was lower proportion of males than females; moreover, in some territories, the number of males in the lizard population was negatively correlated with the number of males impaled by shrikes. Our findings suggest that in this particular predator-prey system, shrikes may be a strong selective force for lizards’ population dynamics. Male-biased predation could be caused by differences in the behaviour of adult male and female lizards, namely longer activity of males and differences in space and refuge use.

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Invasive species have been recognised as an important hazard to native communities. Amongst the mitigation measures that have been proposed to confront biological invasions, eradication projects are certainly the most drastic. In this short communication, a successful eradication project against a recently established population of the Italian wall lizard (Podarcis siculus) in Athens, Greece, is reported. To this aim, the Hellenic Herpetological Society received unforeseen aid from stray cats and, possibly, from the Οcellated skink (Chalcides ocellatus) and vegetation growth. Within three years, the initial thriving P. siculus population has shrunk to very few individuals.

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In the females of the viviparous lizard Zootoca vivipara (Lichtenstein, 1823) (family Lacertidae) from Northwest Russia (2n = 35: 32A (acrocentric autosomes) + Z1Z2W sex chromosomes), the ovarian lumen germinal vesicles (oocytes), as well as germinal lamina cells, were examined. Chromosome preparations were obtained using the direct method and the method of total oocyte nuclei spreading developed by Dresser and Moses. Chromosome preparations were stained with Giemsa; for visualization of synaptonemal complexes (SCs), total preparations of oocyte nuclei were stained with silver nitrate and DAPI. It was demonstrated that, during oogenesis in the female, primary follicles enter the early stages of the meiotic prophase I (stages from leptotene to diplotene, lampbrush chromosomes are formed). Here, for the first time, total oocyte spreads were obtained and studied. On the basis of light microscopic analysis of the oocyte SCs and taking into account their length in a female with 2n = 35, the SC karyotype is presented, consisting of 19 SC elements, among which 16 SC autosomal bivalents are distinguished. The remaining three SC elements, according to the authors, can be univalents of Z1Z2W sex chromosomes or one WZ1 bivalent and Z2 and B chromosome univalents. As in the SC karyotype of Z. vivipara males, in a female, specific features in the morphology of SC elements of chromosomes 5 and 6 were observed.

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A new species, Takydromus yunkaiensis J. Wang, Lyu, & Y.Y. Wang, sp. nov. is described based on a series of specimens collected from the Yunkaishan Nature Reserve located in the southern Yunkai Mountains, western Guangdong Province, China. The new species is a sister taxon to T. intermedius with a genetic divergence of 8.0–8.5% in the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene, and differs from all known congeners by a combination of the following morphological characters: (1) body size moderate, SVL 37.8–56.0 mm in males, 42.6–60.8 mm in females; (2) dorsal ground color brown; ventral surface green to yellow-green, but light blue-green on chin and throat, posteriorly green in adult males; (3) dorsolateral lines paired, strikingly yellowish-white bordered by black above and below, invisible or indistinct in juveniles and adult females; (4) flanks of body blackish brown with light brown marks in adult males; (5) presence of four pairs of chin-shields; (6) four supraoculars on each side; (7) presence of a row of supracilary granules that separate supracilaries from supraoculars; (8) two postnasals; (9) enlarged dorsal scales in six longitudinal rows on trunk of body, with strong keel; (10) enlarged ventral scales in six longitudinal rows, strongly keeled in males, smooth but outermost rows weakly keeled in females; (11) enlarged and keeled lateral scales in a row above ventrals; (12) femoral pores 2–3 on each side; (13) subdigital lamellae 20–23 under the fourth finger, 23–30 under the fourth toe; and (14) the first 2–3 subdigital lamellae under the fourth toe divided. The discovery of Takydromus yunkaiensis sp. nov. brings the total number of species of this genus to 24, of which nine occur in mainland China.

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The life-history traits of the parthenogenetic lizard Darevskia bendimahiensis were studied by skeletochronology in a population inhabiting highlands in Çaldiran, Van, Turkey. Endosteal resorption was observed in 18 specimens (55%). The mean age was 4.91 ± 0.19 SD years. The mean snout-vent length (SVL) was 51.11 ± 1.15 SD mm. The age at sexual maturity was estimated as 3 years. Longevity was 7 years. Snout-vent length and age were positively correlated (Spearman’s correlation; r = 0.797, P = 0.000). The aim of this study is to contribute to the future conservation activities for this endangered species.

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1. Different strategies of reproductive mode, either oviparity (egg‐laying) or vivipar-ity (live‐bearing), will be associated with a range of other life‐history differences that are expected to affect patterns of ageing and longevity. It is usually difficult to compare the effects of alternative reproductive modes because of evolution-ary and ecological divergence. However, the very rare exemplars of reproductivebimodality, in which different modes exist within a single species, offer an oppor-tunity for robust and controlled comparisons.2. One trait of interest that could be associated with life history, ageing and longev-ity is the length of the telomeres, which form protective caps at the chromosome ends and are generally considered a good indicator of cellular health. The shorten-ing of these telomeres has been linked to stressful conditions; therefore, it is pos-sible that differing reproductive costs will influence patterns of telomere loss. This is important because a number of studies have linked a shorter telomere length to reduced survival.3. Here, we have studied maternal and offspring telomere dynamics in the common lizard (Zootoca vivipara). Our study has focused on a population where oviparous and viviparous individuals co‐occur in the same habitat and occasionally inter-breed to form admixed individuals.4. While viviparity confers many advantages for offspring, it might also incur sub-stantial costs for the mother, for example require more energy. Therefore, we predicted that viviparous mothers would have relatively shorter telomeres than oviparous mothers, with admixed mothers having intermediate telomere lengths.There is thought to be a heritable component to telomere length; therefore, we also hypothesized that offspring would follow the same pattern as the mothers.5. Contrary to our predictions, the viviparous mothers and offspring had the longest telomeres, and the oviparous mothers and offspring had the shortest telomeres. The differing telomere lengths may have evolved as an effect of the life‐history divergence between the reproductive modes, for example due to the increased growth rate that viviparous individuals may undergo to reach a similar size at reproduction.

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Climate change is predicted to severely impact species distributions and extinction risk in the coming decades. Ectotherms, such as lizards, are of particular concern due to their dependence on environmental temperatures to survive and reproduce. The predictions of extreme weather events and increases in global mean temperatures will affect the ability of these organisms to carry out important functions such as feeding or breeding. While we predict that these organisms will face challenges from climate change, examining whether they show evidence of coping with these changes is critical for determining extinction risk and making conservation decisions. In this dissertation, I use treatments of 3-hour (short), 6-hour (mid/control), and 9-hour (long) access to basking heat to investigate how different climate extremes, predicted to increase and worsen under climate change, would impact various aspects of pregnant viviparous European common lizards (Zootoca vivipara). The 3-hour treatments reflect an unusually long series of cool days limiting thermoregulation, 6-hours reflects the “normal” period of contemporary climate and 9-hours reflects periods of long-duration heat spells. In Chapter 1, I look at the flexibility of females to modify their behavior to different basking treatments and how intraspecific variation between populations plays a role. My results demonstrate these lizards exhibit plasticity in basking behavior in response to varying thermal opportunity. However, the magnitude to which they modify their behavior is significantly tempered by environmental characteristics of their population of origin. In Chapter 2, I investigate how basking treatments influence gestation and offspring phenotype, as the offspring life history stage is one of great importance. We found that offspring phenotype was significantly affected by mother basking treatments with local population differences and sexdependent outcomes on size and viability in juveniles. My findings indicate that cooler and warmer temperatures have different effects on progeny phenotype and may have cascading impacts under climate change in the next generation. In Chapter 3, I examine how parasite load varies between populations and whether basking treatments influence a lizard’s ability to fight infection. The basking treatments influenced changes in parasite load in three of the five populations, where we observed a relatively small increase in parasite abundance in lizards in the short and mid/control basking treatment compared to the long treatment. This difference between populations suggests a context-dependent impact of basking opportunities on the capability of lizards to clear parasite infections, under the warm environment treatment (9-h) and provides further evidence that ectothermic host-blood parasite relationships are likely to be impacted by future and contemporary climate change. The results of this dissertation ultimately highlight the complex impacts climate change can have on these organisms and will hopefully encourage further research while raising awareness of this pressing issue.

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The rate of heat exchange with the environment is of obvious importance in determining the time budget of behavioural thermoregulation in ectotherms. In small reptiles, heating rate depends mainly on their physical characteristics. We analysed the effect of body size, and the possible joint effects originating from shape and colour differences on heating rate in three small-bodied (0.15-20 g) sympatric lizard species. Heating rate was strongly influenced by body size, while no joint effects with the two other factors were detected. We found that the increase in heating rate with decreasing body size accelerated dramatically below a body weight of 2-3 g. We also analysed associations between body size, seasonal activity patterns and thermal characteristics of the sites where lizards were encountered in the field. Differently sized lizards occurred in thermally different sites and differed in their seasonal activity patterns, both within and among species. Smaller (<2-3 g) lizards occurred in cooler sites and exhibited very low activity during summer. Our results suggest that body size has a considerable influence on the spatial and temporal distribution of extremely small lizards in environments subject to a danger of overheating.

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The complete mitochondrial genome sequence of Takydromus septentrionalis was determined by shotgun sequencing. The total length of mitogenome is 18,304 bp, and contains 13 protein-coding genes, 22 tRNA genes, 2 ribosome RNA genes, and 2 control regions. Most of the genes of T. septentrionalis were distributed on the H-strand, except for the ND6 subunit gene and eight tRNA genes which were encoded on the L-strand. The phylogenetic tree of T. septentrionalis and 8 other closely related species was reconstructed. The phylogenetic analyses based on these mitogenomes presented here will be useful for further insights on the evolutionary relationships of Takydromus.

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The final-instar larvae of Pryeria sinica Moore, 1877 (Zygaenidae) are conspicuously colored yellow-green with black stripes and are known to escape from attacks after predators learn of the cyanogenic fluids secreted on their body surface. Ivela auripes (Butler, 1877) (Lymantriidae) is often found in the same habitat during the same season as P. sinica, and its pupa (not larva) is similar to larval P. sinica in shape and color. Mature larvae of P. sinica search for pupation sites during the daytime and pupate in cryptic, pale-brown cocoons. On the other hand, I. auripes pupates without cocoons on substrates near and above the ground, where they appear to be exposed to predators. In this study, it was observed that Japanese tits, Parus minor Temminck & Schlegel, 1848, ate I. auripes pupae attached to a wall, but no tit individual ever attacked them repeatedly. When fed pupae or larvae in the laboratory, Japanese grass lizards, Takydromus tachydromoides (Schlegel, 1838), rarely ate larval P. sinica or pupal I. auripes or regurgitated them soon after eating them, suggesting their unpalatability. If discrimination of pupal I. auripes from larval P. sinica is not precise for these potential predators, their similar warning colors might constitute a rare case of Müllerian mimicry between different developmental stages of unrelated moth species.

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Esta tesis trata de, una vez explorados los rasgos fenotípicos que pueden interpretarse como adaptaciones locales, contestar a preguntas que tienen que ver con cómo responde el genoma a las presiones selectivas divergentes que subyacen a la diferenciación de dichos rasgos. En general, no se pretende descubrir la base genética de la adaptación a los gradientes ambientales que generan adaptación local; lo que se busca es desentrañar cómo la evolución provee la variación genética necesaria para afrontar diferentes retos ecológicos en una especie capaz de subsistir en una gran variedad de ambientes. Mediante escaneos genómicos a gran escala, conseguimos definir fracciones del genoma relacionadas con la adaptación a distintos ambientes, revelando patrones de convergencia y divergencia adaptativa gracias a procesos tanto de mantenimiento de diversidad genética ancestral como de innovación genética. Tras conseguir descifrar la huella de la selección natural en el genoma, nos preguntamos acerca de las dinámicas genéticas responsables de los umbrales adaptativos que configuran los límites de la distribución de la especie, como proceso que depende de forma directa de la adaptación local. Por último, realizamos un estudio de los efectos genéticos de la fragmentación del hábitat en una metapoblación de lagartijas, en la que el aumento de la homocigosidad en los fragmentos de menor tamaño dio lugar a una pérdida de aptitud (eficacia biológica o aptitud) en los individuos afectados. Además, nuestro trabajo nos permitió aumentar significativamente la potencia estadística de unos pocos marcadores neutrales (6 loci de microsatélites utilizados para sustentar las correlaciones entre fragmentación, homocigosis y aptitud), validándolos con una base de datos genómica con más de 73,000 variantes genéticas.

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When encountering predators, prey animals often signal their ability to fight or flee to discourage the predator from an attack or pursuit. A key requirement for evolutionary stability of these predator-deterrent signals is that they convey honest information on the prey’s fighting or fleeing performance. In this study, we investigate the enigmatic ‘distress call’ of the lacertid lizard Psammodromus algirus, and test whether it conveys reliable information on an individual’s body size, and bite and sprint performance. Our acoustic analyses revealed a complex spectral structure in the vocalization of P. algirus, showing a wide frequency bandwidth, multiple harmonics, and a marked frequency modulation. This spectral design may allow such calls to be perceived by multiple potential predators, as it was assessed by a literature search comparing the call frequency range with the hearing ranges of P. algirus’ top predators. In addition, we found considerable inter-individual variation in the call design of lizards (‘call signatures’), which was linked with inter-individual variation in body size and maximum bite force, but not with sprint speed (a proxy of escape performance). As a whole, our study supports the hypothesis that the vocalizations of P. algirus lizards have the potential to serve as honest calls to deter predators. Further research on the behavioural response of predators towards lizard calls is essential in order to unravel the true predator deterrence potential of these calls.

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Psammodromus algirus from Madrid, Ávila, and Cádiz provinces, Spain, and P. occidentalis from Cádiz province were examined for the presence of external and internal parasites. Among those parasites represented were: Ixodes inopinatus (Arthropoda, Arachnida, Acari, Ixodidae); Haemaphysalis punctata (Arthropoda, Arachnida, Acari, Ixodidae); Skrjabinelazia cf. taurica (Nematoda, Secernentea, Ascaridida, Seuratidae); Spauligodon carbonelli (Nematoda: Secernentea, Oxyurida, Pharyngodonidae); Parapharyngodon psammodromi (Nematoda, Secernentea, Oxyurida, Pharyngodonidae); Abbreviata abbreviata (Nematoda, Secernentea, Physalopteroidea, Physalopteridae); Mesocestoides sp. (Platyhelminthes, Cestoda, Cyclophyllidea, Mesocestoididae); and Oochoristica cf. tuberculata (Platyhelminthes, Cestoda, Cyclophyllidea, Davaineidae). Details regarding localities from which host species were collected, number of parasites and sites of attachment, and estimates of prevalence and intensities of infection are presented. Nematode diversity, along with parasite prevalence, parasitaemia, and relationship to elevation are also discussed. A table of Psammodromus parasites in Spain is also included.

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We studied the composition and seasonal changes in diet and prey selection in the wall lizard Podarcis vaucheri of the Djurdjura Mountains throughout its activity period, from April to October 2014. The analysis of 238 faecal pellets revealed 1 206 prey items distributed in 19 prey categories. The most important prey categories were: Formicidae, Coleoptera, Aranea, Homoptera, and Orthoptera. Significant seasonal variation in the taxonomic composition of the diet and prey availability was found. A significant difference in diet composition was observed between males and females in spring. This lizard species displayed a more diverse dietary spectrum during this period, followed by a slight decrease in summer. However, a severe decrease in the food niche breadth was observed in autumn, resulting in a high consumption of ants. A comparison of diet composition and prey availability showed that lizards exhibited a clear selection of certain prey types, in contrast to what is often suggested for lacertid lizards.

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Communication via color signals is common in natural systems. Ultraviolet (UV)-blue patches located on the outer-ventral scales of some lacertid lizards are thought to be involved in male-male competition. However, the mechanisms that maintain their honesty remain unknown. Here, we use the common wall lizard Podarcis muralis to test whether the lateral UV-blue spots are conventional signals, the honesty of which is guaranteed by receiver-dependent costs, and discuss their potential role as an amplifier of body size. We first described the morphology and reflectance properties of lateral UV-blue spots in common wall lizards and investigated how they influence male-male competition. Spot size and number, UV chroma, and conspicuousness (calculated using vision models) were significantly greater in adult males relative to adult females and adult males relative to juveniles. Total spot area (and not spot number) of adult males was positively correlated with body size. We conducted staged competition encounters between focal males and smaller or larger rivals with control or manipulated spots. Spots were enlarged in small rivals and reduced in large rivals to disrupt the phenotypic correlation between spot area and body size. Aggressiveness and dominance were positively influenced by body size in control encounters. Spot manipulations resulted in greater submission and less aggressiveness in focal males. These results contradict the predictions associated with conventional signals and amplifiers, but suggest that spots contributed to opponent evaluation during short-distance encounters between competing males.

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Disentangling the effects of single releasers in animal communication is a demanding task because a releaser often consists of a combination of different key stimuli. Territorial communication in reptiles usually depends on visual, chemical, and acoustic stimuli, but the role of each of them depends on phylogeny. Lacertids are modern lizards that rely mainly on chemical cues for their communication, but they also use aggressive displays based on visual recognition. We experimentally tested the visual stimuli that release an aggressive response in the males of a typical lacertid, the common wall lizard (Podarcis muralis), testing the effects of silicone models and mirrored images in captivity. The response to models and control (a blank sheet) was not significantly different and these stimuli did not release any aggressive behaviour. On the contrary, the reflected image in a mirror caused overt aggression (i.e., bites against it) in 63% of tested individuals. The results clearly demonstrate the role of visual stimuli in territorial communication, but only as a combined effect of shape and motion, differently from other lizard families for which shape is enough to stimulate aggressive responses. Mirrors can be useful tools to investigate aggression related to physiological and morphological aspects in lacertid lizards.

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Regeneration is the process of regrowth of an injured/missing tissue/organ from the residual tissue. One outstanding example is the regeneration of tail in lizards in which they can completely regenerate without the formation of scaring or fibrotic tissue. This study presents an analysis of the main differences between a mature regenerated tail and the original tail of the lizard Podarcis bocagei by comparing histological biomarkers for support structures, morphology and pigmentation, vasculature and energy storage. Matured regenerated and original tails were studied with different histological staining’s and immunohistochemistry to highlight the various tissue components. We found differences in the morphological features scalation pattern and pigmentation, as well as in the support structures: muscle organization, collagen and calcification. Vasculature was remodeled. Energy storage was restored with regeneration maintaining therefore the main metabolic function. We demonstrate that the regenerated tail does not lose its main functions like locomotion and energy metabolism. The present findings may open a new window of research with implications in regenerative medicine.

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Ephrin receptors are the most common tyrosine kinase effectors operating during development. Ephrin receptor genes are reported to be up-regulated in the regenerating tail of the Podarcis muralis lizard. Thus, in the current study, we investigated immunolocalization of ephrin receptors in the Podarcis muralis tail during regeneration. Weak immunolabelled bands for ephrin receptors were detected at 15–17 kDa, with a stronger band also detected at 60–65 kDa. Labelled cells and nuclei were seen in the basal layer of the apical wound epidermis and ependyma, two key tissues stimulating tail regeneration. Strong nuclear and cytoplasmic labelling were present in the segmental muscles of the regenerating tail, sparse blood vessels, and perichondrium of regenerating cartilage. The immunolocalization of ephrin receptors in muscle that gives rise to large portions of new tail tissue was correlated with their segmentation. This study suggests that the high localization of ephrin receptors in differentiating epidermis, ependyma, muscle, and cartilaginous cells is connected to the regulation of cell proliferation through the activation of programs for cell differentiation in the proximal regions of the regenerating tail. The lower immunolabelling of ephrin receptors in the apical blastema, where signaling proteins stimulating cell proliferation are instead present, helps maintain the continuous growth of this region.

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Despite it is widely accepted that intrapopulation variation is fundamental to ecological and evolutionary processes, this level of information has only recently been included into network analysis of species/population interactions. When done, it has revealed non-random patterns in the distribution of trophic resources. Nestedness in resource use among individuals is the most recurrent observed pattern, often accompanied by an absence of modularity, but no previous studies examine bipartite modularity. We use network analysis to describe the diet composition of the Balearic endemic lizard Podarcis lilfordi in 2 islets at population and individual levels, based on the occurrence of food items in fecal samples. Our objectives are to 1) compare niche structure at both levels, 2) characterize niche partition using nestedness and modularity, and 3) assess how size, sex, season, and spatial location influence niche structure. At population-level niche width was wide, but narrow at the level of the individual. Both islet networks were nested, indicating similar ranking of the food preferences among individuals, but also modular, which was partially explained by seasonality. Sex and body size did not notably affect diet composition. Large niche overlap and therefore possibly relaxed competition were observed among females in one of the islets and during spring on both islets. Likewise, higher modularity in autumn suggests that higher competition could lead to specialization in both populations, because resources are usually scarce in this season. The absence of spatial location influence on niche might respond to fine-grained spatio-temporally distribution of food resources. Behavioral traits, not included in this study, could also influence resource partitioning.

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Background. From the genus Darevskia in the territory of Azerbaijan Republic noted 11 species (D. armeniaca, D. caucasica, D. chlorogaster, D. daghestanica, D. derjugini, D. portschinskii, D. praticola, D. raddei, D. rostombekovi, D. rudis, D. valentini). Information on the condition of rock lizards in the republic has not been updated for a long time. The aim of the work was to clarify the data on the distribution and abundance of these species in Azerbaijan.
Materials and methods. The research was carried in the Talysh Mountains (Lenkoran, Lerik and Yardimli districts of Azerbaijan in 2008–2011), in the Great Caucasus (Guba, Gusar, Gabala and Zagatala districts in 2013–2016), in the Minor Caucasus (Dashkesen, Gadabay and Tovuz districts in 2017–2018).
Results. On the basis of own data and analysis of literature sources the data on the distribution and number of rock lizards from the genus Darevskia in Azerbaijan are given. The authors note that the areas of forest lizards of the Talysh (D. chlorogaster and D. praticola hyrcanica) are being reduced and these species need legisla- tive protection. The extinct species for the territory of the Republic should be considered D. derjugini.

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Materials and methods. Observations of Amphibians and Reptiles were carried out during two tourist trips in March 2016 and in May 2018 in the Iranian provinces of Gilan and Ardebil.
Results. New data on the distribution of 6 species of Amphibians (Bufo eichwaldi, Bufotes variabilis, Hyla orientalis, H. savignyi, Pelophylax ridibundus, Rana pseudodalmatina) and 21 species of Reptiles (Emys orbicularis, Paralaudakia caucasia, Trapelus ruderatus, Darevskia chlorogaster, D. defilippii, D. raddei, Eremias strauchi, Iranolacerta brandtii, Lacerta strigata, Ophisops elegans, Ablepharus bivittatus, Heremites auratus, Pseudopus apodus, Eryx jaculus, Eirenis punctatolineatus, Hemorrhois ravergieri, Platyceps najadum, Telescopus fallax, Xerotyphlops vermicularis, Natrix natrix, N. tessellata) in the study area were obtained. The author compares the obtained data with the results of other Herpetological researches in the region.
Conclusions. In general, the herpetofauna of the Caspian slopes of the Talysh Range in Iran is an inseparable part of mesophilic herpetocomplexes with the prevalence of gyrcan elements common from the north-western foothills of Talysh in Azerbaijan to the Western Kopetdag in Turkmenistan.

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The potential toxicity of glyphosate, a widely used broad-spectrum herbicide, is currently a great matter of debate. As vertebrate insectivores, lizards protect plants from herbivorous insects increasing plant biomass via the trophic cascade and represent an important link between invertebrates and higher predators. A negative effect of glyphosate on lizards’ survival could have major impacts at the ecological levels. In this study, we investigated the effects of the exposure to low doses of glyphosate on the liver of the wall lizard Podarcis siculus, a suitable bioindicator of soil pollution. Two different doses of pure glyphosate (0.05 and 0.5 μg/kg body weight) were orally administered every other day for 3 weeks to sexually mature males and females. The results demonstrated that both doses, despite being very low, are toxic for the liver that showed clear signs of suffering, regardless of sex. The histological analysis provided a scenario of severe hepatic condition, which degenerated until the appearance of fibrotic formations. The morphological observations were consistent with a loss of liver physiological functions. Immunocytochemical investigations allowed us to detect an involvement of antioxidant/cytoprotective proteins, such as superoxide dismutase 1 (Cu/Zn SOD, known as SOD1), glutathione peroxidase 1 (GPx1), metallothionein (MT), and tumor suppressor protein 53, (p53) suggesting that the liver was trying to react against stress signals and damage induced by glyphosate. Finally, in situ hybridization and Real-Time PCR analysis showed the upregulation of estrogen receptor α and vitellogenin gene expression, thus demonstrating the xenoestrogenic action of glyphosate. The imbalance of the hormonal homeostasis could threaten the lizards’ reproductive fitness and survival, altering the trophic cascade.